The Last Of An Important Ecosystem Environmental Sciences Essay

The Hatchie River is the lone staying of course weaving, undammed and unchannelized river of the Lower Mississippi Valley in Tennessee, doing it geographically and biologically important. The river flows through both Mississippi and Tennessee before eventually emptying into the Mississippi River. Hatchie River is fed by many feeders and flows through a comparatively level flood plain. Chemically, the river faces jobs from siltation and pollutants from industry, agribusiness, and other beginnings non easy identifiable. This river ‘s ecosystem construction is as dynamic and diverse as the workss, animate beings and people that reside in or base on balls through it. This river system, particularly its bottomland hardwood woods, has many maps some of which are wildlife home ground and a biological filter for the copiousness of foods that it carries. Hatchie River is a valuable ecosystem non merely because it exists but because of its importance to scientific discipline and wildlife and is a reminder of what used to be. Though Hatchie has managed to get away channelisation and impounding itself, many of its feeders have non which has led to many concerns affecting deposit, altering land usage and chemical pollutants doing an addition in both habitat loss and hapless H2O quality.A The undermentioned information will explicate the significant importance of Hatchie River as a unique and endangered species. Snaking through parts of Mississippi and Tennessee, the Hatchie River is more than 200 stat mis long ( â€Å" The Nature Conservancy † 2013 ) . The headwaters of the Hatchie are located in Mississippi sou'-west of Corinth in Union County and flows in an unreal drainage canal which continues about to the Tennessee State line ( Diehl 2000 ) . A From that point the river flows north and west through McNairy, Hardeman, Haywood, Madison, Tipton and Lauderdale Counties in Tennessee before emptying in the Mississippi River ( Steed 2002 ) . The Tennessee part of this river flows of course and unimpeded through the Gulf Coastal Plain. A The Hatchie River lies within the Southeastern Gulf Coastal Plain ( Nabb 1996 ) . A Harmonizing to the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation, the Hatchie River watershed prevarications within four ecoregions, but most of its length falls within the Northern Hilly Gulf Coastal Plains and Loess Plains ( TDEC 2009 ) . The Northern Hilly Gulf Coastal Plains are characterized by a steeper gradient and a sandier substrate than the Loess Plains which are gently turn overing with sedimentations of loess transcending 50 pess ( TDEC 2009 ) . Soils in this country are classified as Entisols and are prone to eroding and deluging due to the low alleviation and lift of the rivers class ( HNWR 2006, Steed 1979 ) .A A Though the chief channel of the Hatchie River has non undergone channelisation, many of its feeders have. Most of the river ‘s 36 feeders have been channelized and contribute important sums of deposit ( â€Å" The Nature Conservancy † 2013 ) . The hydrolog y of Hatchie River has been affected most by the changes made to its many feeders. Most of Hatchie ‘s 36 feeders have been channelized for agricultural and flood control intents ( Steed et al 2002 ) . The consequence of the increased deposit burden has led to the chief channel ‘s decrease in deepness found to be greater than three pess harmonizing to research reported by Elizabeth Nabb ( 1996 ) . As fluctuations in the bed degree of Hatchie River occur, fluctuations in the inundation happenings addition ( Nabb 1996 ) . Changes in the morphology and hydrology of this system non merely impact the river itself but the construction of the ecosystem it supports. A A A A A A A A A A A The ecosystem represented by the Hatchie River is delicate and its morphology, hydrology and chemical science are intertwined in such a manner as to do each and every portion a continuum of a mega-organism. It is impossible to discourse the rivers hydrology without besides turn toing the workss and animate beings that are dependent upon it. Because of this, as with any wetland system, the system ‘s dynamic nature can non be entirely represented by a individual species of dominant tree or bush. This river system is a combination of many classs of vegetive features while dependant on certain belongingss of the dirt and inundation governments at different degrees of lift and distance from the natural meander of Hatchie River. Studies conducted at Hatchie National Wildlife Refuge ( HNWR ) in Brownsville, Tennessee have shown that flora nowadays in an country is significantly related toA changing grades of streaking and/or gleyingA ( Steed 1979, Steed, Plyler, and Buckner 2002 ) .A In Steeds 1979 survey he indicated that forest screen can be separated into two wide types: hydroseric and mesic. The hydroseric type occurred in countries that remained saturated, sing extended anaerobiotic activity and included communities that were dominated by Tupelo Gum, Bald Cypress or Overcup oak based on increasing grades of gleying respectfully ( Steed 1979 ) . The mesonic type occurred in countries that were at times afloat but dry during the turning season and included assorted communities of Sweet gum, willow oak, cherrybark oak and many others ( Steed 1979 ) .A In add-on, in Steed ‘s joint research of 2002, he and his spouses indicated that there were definite relationships between dirts and dirt drainage categories, topography, and species of trees ( Steed et al 2002 ) . So the connexion between dirt, H2O and workss becomes evident. What of the animate beings that depend on Hatchie River for their support? A A A A A A A A A A A The Hatchie River is more than dirt, H2O and flora. This alone trace of bottomland hardwoods that one time covered huge countries of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley is home to many animals, common and rare. Volumes could be and hold been written on the many of import maps of the Hatchie River ecosystem and one would be distressed to state which is most important.A As it carries vitalizing foods down its unimpeded channel, the Hatchie deposits them all along its flood plain to organize alone dirts that are some of the richest in America. These foods create chiefly two major types of dirt, Amagon and Falayar, which are extremely productive for many species of bottomland hardwood trees, both land and aquatic workss, and are responsible for fertile croplands that are extremely prized by agribusiness. [ General dirt map Hatchie River Basin study, Tennessee and Mississippi. Writer: United States. Soil Conservation Service.Publisher: Nashville, Tenn. , 1969 ] The Hatch ie ‘s seasonal implosion therapy has for many 1000s of old ages brought life with its foods to the dirt of the flood plain, maintaining lands as fertile now as even before Native Americans foremost came to this land. Mankind and animate beings have long depended on the Hatchie ‘s being. Having birthed these exuberant home grounds all along its flow, the Hatchie provides amazing ecological benefits and services to each 1. The hardwood woods, cane interruptions, gangrenes, oxbows, boggy wetlands, and lakes it creates as it meanders are all place to pullulating life. A A major map of this system is wildlife home ground. Because of its singularity, parts of the riverine system have been preserved at both province and national degrees. Hatchie River National Wildlife Refuge, Lower Hatchie National Wildlife Refuge, John Tully Wildlife Management Area and Fort Pillow State Park have all preserved small pieces of this great river and its surrounding landscape ( Nature conservanc y Mississippi river precedence site ) . Hatchie River and its bottomland hardwood woods support many species in many systematic orders. Included in this tremendously diverse group of animate beings, several species are considered to be vulnerable, in demand of direction, threatened, or endangered. The Hatchie Burrowing Crayfish is endemic to an country of merely under 20,000 estates on a individual feeder of the Hatchie River and considered to be critically endangered ( Crandall 2010 ) . The Hatchie River and both National Wildlife Refuges have been designated as one uninterrupted IBA ( Important Bird Area ) by BirdLife International. In this country the Mississippi Kite, Cerulean Warbler, and Swainsons Warbler are species designated as In Need of Management by the province of Tennessee ( www.tnbirds.org ) . The Prothonotary Warbler is a pit squatter in afloat woods and its outstanding genteelness country is within the Mississippi Alluvial Valley ( Prothonotary Warbler Web 2013 ) .A The Swainsons warbler, listed as a high preservation concern by Partners in Flight and on the Audubon Society ‘s ticker list, has, harmonizing to the Nature Conservancy, made slightly of a rejoinder to the Hatchie River country due to the Restoration of bottomland hardwood woods ( www.tnwatchablewildlife.orgA and the Nature Conservancy ) . Migratory birds utilizing the Mississippi flyway depend on the wetlands and the natural harvests provided by the Hatchie to prolong them as they travel each twelvemonth. Many species of birds, mammals and even insects and reptilians depend on the mast produced by bottomland hardwoods along the Hatchie ‘s length. [ U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Southeast Regional Office, April 2006 hypertext transfer protocol: //digitalmedia.fws.gov/cdm/singleitem/collection/document/id/655/rec/13 hypertext transfer protocol: //www.fws.gov/southeast/planning/PDFdocuments/HatchieFinal/Hatchie % 20Final % 20CCP.pdf ] A Hatchie River besides holds rare fish like the blue chump and northern madtom and is place to possibly more species of catfish than any other river in the north American continent ( nature.org ) . Though these species belong to different categories of taxonomy, they all have in common the loss of home ground whether it be in the H2O or in the trees or someplace in between. Hatchie Rivers map as wildlife home ground is valuable to these and many other species. That value does non stop with wildlife but continues on to all of those that appreciate in one signifier or another the rareness of the wildlife and the conglobation that is the Hatchie River wetland system. A A A A A A A A A A A What other valuable maps does the Hatchie River perform and how are the benefits realized? Wetlands hold H2O that from extra rain or possibly snowmelt in some countries and so easy let go of it to rivers and watercourses. A Hatchie River serves this map. However, the feeders that drain into the Hatchie have been channelized, there wetland-type countries have been destroyed ensuing in increased H2O speed through those feeders. The consequence is eroding of those stream Bankss which increases the sum of deposit they carry as they enter the chief channel of the Hatchie River. As clip base on ballss, increased siltation produces shoals and in utmost instances valley stoppers ( Diehl 2000 ) . While both of these consequences in altered hydrology of the wetland system, vale stoppers are much more damaging to the bottomland hardwood woods and the river itself. A vale stopper occurs when heavy deposit fills the river channel coercing back-filling across the inundation f ield until a new river channel is realized harmonizing to Diehl mentioning work by Stafford C. Happ in 1975 ( 2000 ) . Harmonizing to Diehl, without control of highland eroding, Hatchie ‘s flood plain may stop up a fen and a topographic point where hardwoods can non last. Wetlands have varied and legion maps. They purify H2O as it moves through the inundation fields and as this slow motion occurs some of the extra H2O percolates through to the aquifer, reloading it. Many countries depend on this map to provide their citizens with clean imbibing H2O. The filtration of H2O through the inundation plains helps to take drosss such as chemical toxins and extra deposit and in some countries wetlands are developed for that exclusive intent. Some chemicals are taken up by certain wetland workss, efficaciously taking them from the H2O and at the same clip the above-ground parts of these workss assistance in pin downing larger atoms. The Hatchie besides creates many types of recreational , fishing, and runing chances as it flows to the Mississippi. Because of its entreaty to migratory birds, duck huntsmans are drawn to the Hatchie ‘s wetlands, fishermen come to partake of the many assortments found in its Waterss, cervid and Meleagris gallopavo huntsmans vie for lands along the Hatchie. Hunters and fishermen, every bit good as leghorns, campers, tramps, bird spectators and nature lovers all flock to the Hatchie, making incomes for those who portion in supplying all these Hatchie visitants with entree. The Hatchie provides rich dirts in which local husbandmans raise bumper harvests, cognizing about anything can be good grown in Hatchie dirts. Farm/food animate beings can be grazed on both deep-rooted harvests, natural grasses and hardwood masts. The Hatchie maps as a supplier to worlds, wild and domestic animate beings, aquatic life, birds, reptilians, insects, trees, and workss, and even industry. A A A A A A A A A A A Although the Hatchie has flowed freely and infinitely for 1000s of old ages, it is non without menaces and jobs. The steady rise in deposit from its feeders and from agribusiness, of all time increasing contaminations, altered flow, every bit good as atomization of home grounds and loss of woods are all endangering the very life of the Hatchie. Heavy sediment tonss flow into the Hatchie from most of the river ‘s 36 feeders. It is this implosion therapy that has brought life in the signifier of foods to the dirt of the flood plain, sing it remains as fertile today as it has been for a thousand old ages, even before the yearss when Native Americans first began populating off this land. However, it is this really implosion therapy that has caused the human population to make inundation control undertakings, convert bottomlands to farms and spread out urban development. The invasion of civilisation has eliminated many full ecosystems in American history, and t he Hatchie is susceptible to the same destiny without sound direction and attention. In the past century, upseting wetland losingss have occurred in the Hatchie wetlands of the Lower Mississippi Valley.A [ hypertext transfer protocol: //designpathmedia.com/twrf/Conservation.cfm? uid=12092520112677465 Tennesse Wildlife Resources Foundation ( TWRF ) ] Hardwood woods have been reduced to 20 % of what they one time were.A Loss of wetlands narrows the cistron pools for migratory birds as some no longer happen ground to halt along the Hatchie to feed or engender ( Bonney et al. , 2000 ) . Chemical contaminations from industry, agribusiness and assorted other beginnings are another job faced by this river. Chemical contaminations were found in the H2O, deposits, and fish of the Hatchie River and included: Organochlorine pesticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and CUPs ( current-use pesticides ) which include weedkillers like 2,4 D and pesticides like Malathion ( HNWR ) . Mercury was besides detected and like the others was found to be within safe bounds ( HNWR ) .The Hatchie is losing cherished life as a consequence of these major impacts and has seen species of the Lower Mississippi Valley going earnestly threatened, endangered, or nonextant. Already the ruddy wolf and jaguar are gone, and the ivory-bi lledA peckerwood and three warblers that called the Hatchie place are now either critically endangered or genuinely extinct.A It may non be excessively late to change by reversal these jeopardies to the life of the Hatchie, but it will necessitate major preservation attempts, land and H2O direction with these rich home grounds uppermost in head, and better stewardship of this beautiful, rare hoarded wealth that is the Hatchie River and its home grounds. The Hatchie provides all who make usage of its presence with so many vitalizing maps that it deserves our protection to maintain it fluxing free and clean. A A A A A A A A A A A Protecting Hatchie River can non be accomplished by a individual entity or organisation. The continuity of this great wetland system will depend on continued partnerships between organisations of local, province and federal degrees every bit good as private land proprietors, husbandmans and users of the out-of-door infinite provided by Hatchie River. The Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation Division of Water Pollution Control adopted what is calledA the watershed attack to H2O quality and preservation ( Lower Hatchie ) . This attack has brought partnerships on many degrees. The Natural Resources Conservation Service, the United States Geological Survey, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the U. S. Army Corp of Engineers are involved on a federal degree harmonizing to the National Wildlife Refuges preservation programs. Federal partnerships provide changing services that enhance eroding control, wildlife direction, preservation attempts, plan ning, planing, building and runing high quality and moderately priced civil plants H2O resource undertakings, care of river navigability, monitoring of inundations and drouths, roll uping extended scientific information, and offering a broad assortment of federally-funded undertakings that conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, and workss and their home grounds, every bit good as, advice to other bureaus and organisations. A On the province degree, TDEC Division of Water Supply, the State Revolving Fund, the Tennessee Department of Agriculture, West Tennessee River Basin Authority, and Mississippi Department of Environmental QualityA A service to assist forestall H2O pollution, supply low-interest loans to metropoliss and counties for effluent intervention, offer grant plans to better H2O quality and educate the populace, aid continue the natural flow of the Hatchie by bettering impaired feeders or job countries in the Hatchie itself, and supply monitoring and informations t o province bureaus. On the local degree, Friends of West Tennessee Refuges, The Nature Conservancy, the Hatchie River Conservancy, The Chickasaw-Shiloh Resource Conservation and Development Council and The Friend of the Hatchie organisation and others provide voluntaries, fundraising, and educational plans to acquire the local populace involved in stewardship of all of the Hatchie ‘s home grounds. Some of the local spouses have invested in multimillion dollar plans to better H2O quality and halt eroding and to buy lands for saving of bottomlands and wetlands. A A A A A A A A A A A The maps and values of the Hatchie River are countless and unreplaceable, doing the Hatchie cherished by many. Its hydrogeomorphology makes it exceeding as one of a really few natural ecosystems left in America. Though Hatchie River is a wetland system, it is more than a individual home ground. It is a apogee of many that are so closely interlacing as to be identical from each other. Its uniqueness provides home grounds for animate beings that, in some cases, can be found nowhere else. Many obstructions must be overcome in order to continue what remains. Siltation, habitat loss and pollution are elephantine hurdlings but non unsurmountable if bureaus, organisations and the citizens combine forces to continue this invaluable gem of West Tennessee.

Prison Overcrowding Essay

Abstract This research paper is to explore the impact of prison overcrowding. The United States has a, what seems to be everlasting, prison overcrowding problem. Not only does the United States have this dilemma, but also many other countries have overcrowded prisons as well. Many issues need to be addressed; ways to reduce the prison populations and how to effectively reduce prison cost without jeopardizing community safety are major issues that need attention. Successfully rehabilitating inmates can play an important role in the fight to Prison Overcrowding There are overcrowded prisons all over the world. In 2011, the United States federal prisons housed around 219,000 inmates. In 1980, the United States federal prison population was 25,000. A total of 1,598,780 adults were incarcerated in county jails and federal and state prisons at the end of 2011, according to Urban Institute. There are many issues that need to be revisited until there is a solution. A number of impacts are the product of the overcrowded prisons. Health, safety of inmates and correctional staff, as well as, economical problems all need some solution, and quickly. Not only are prisons affected, communities are also directly and indirectly affected by prison overcrowding. Even though the government can’t just start releasing prisoners that haven’t served their full sentences to reduce the populations, the cost of incarceration, the health and safety of inmates and staff, and the affect that overcrowding has on communities are all issues that cannot be put on a back burner. With United States prisons being filled 38 percent above their capacity, some issues are of greater importance than others when it comes to the overcrowding of prisons. How to decrease prison populations is the main objective. California has started a program that has reduced prison populations significantly. Nonviolent, non-serious, non-sexual offenders are sentenced to local facilities like county jails  instead of state prison. The Department of Corrections has programs that alternative to incarceration and are more cost effective that have been given more funding in recent years also. The cost of incarceration, and the effect it has on the economy, in the United States is a major issue. It is very costly to house inmates in prison every year. An article in Impaired Driver Update. Show that it cost $27,000 to hold one inmate for a year, and that approximately $50 billion a year is spent on incarceration. It cost 20 times more to have an inmate incarceration than to have them on probation. Of $50 billion dollars spent on correction, $6.8 billion is spent on probation. An article published in Federal Probation in 2013 states, â€Å"recidivism rates average between 43 and 67 percent and supervision violators constitute on third of the persons admitted to state correctional facilities,† and â€Å"on, average, persons under supervision have five prior arrest; 16 percent violated a federal, state, or local community supervision, and 8 percent have a history of absconding.† Sentencing offenders to alternative programs would help cut cost and also help decrease prison overcrowding. Alternative programs for offenders in lieu of prison or inmate programs that help rehabilitate offenders and prepare them for re-entry co uld also help prison overcrowding. If inmates are able to attend programs for drug treatment, social disorders, and dealing with issues like abuse as a child the prison population could decrease. Inmates that have successfully rehabilitated have contributed to society and thus show that more money towards rehabilitation instead of incarceration could have a positive impact on population and society. In 2012, supervisees paid around $645 million in restitution, fines, and assessments. They contributed $4 million in community service. If more inmates are successfully rehabilitated an estimation in the Federal Probation shows that a savings of around $115 million could be cut of the budget with supervisees contributing by paying taxes, supporting dependents rather than on welfare, satisfying ordered financial obligations, and performing community service. The probation system cannot solve the whole overcrowding problem but could help immensely. Inmates that are released from prison that have no family, no real friends, no one to help them are really set up to fail off the top. They are given $200 and sent out to survive in what is one of the most expensive countries in the world. $200 now days will not even get you a hotel room for a week.  So many of them revert to selling drugs, stealing, or worse to manage. If there were more programs to help find them housing, employment opportunities and teach them how to be productive members of society, maybe the prison population would continue to decrease. There are also many effects of prison overcrowding on inmates and correctional staff health as well as the effects on correctional staff safety. The Corrections Manager Report in Dec/Jan 2014 reports an incident of a BOP officer killed, â€Å"while working alone in a unit housing 130 inmates.† The Urban Institute also states, â€Å"health and safety hazards from over used toilets, showers, and food service equipment,â⠂¬  are some of the many issues that need to be addressed. The Supreme Court ruled that California prisons were so bad they violated the 8th amendment and CDRC needed to reduce prison population by 30,000 inmates. Releasing inmates also has an effect on communities. When inmates are release it can affect their communities. If in the future there are more alternatives to incarceration to help reduce prison population people will be affected. Of course, not all inmates are going to follow their rehabilitation program and their offense will affect their community. They many rob, steal, or possibly assault someone in their community. They could begin to sale drugs that can also directly affect a community. There are positive ways though too that the community could be affected and the community could also positively affect the offender by participating or starting programs that help offenders start following a new path, and become successful members of society. Some communities have started outreach programs that help offenders. By having alternative programs available to offenders, who meet certain criteria it will help with the prison overcrowding problem that much of the United States continues to have a serious problem with. Prison overcrowding is a serious problem all over the world. It has economic effects. Prison overcrowding also has health risk to inmates as well as correctional staff. Safety risk for both inmates and correctional staff pose a great problem to with prisons being overcrowded. There are both pros and cons when it comes to effects on communities with this issue. Although we can’t just start releasing inmates to solve prison overcrowding, we can start focusing on ways to solve this problem. Prison overcrowding is a very complicated issue and should be given great attention by Congress, the Board of Prisons, and the Department of Justice. References Gershenhorn, Karen & Myers Ryan. 2013. Prison Math. Impaired Driver. Winter 2013. Vol. 17. Issue 1, p 5-19. Harding, Richard. 1987. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology. Australian Academic Press. Mar.1987. Vol. 20 Issue 1, p 50-62. Mobley, Alan & Owen, Barbara. 2012. Western Criminology Review. Aug. 2012. Volume 13. Issue 2. p 46-57. Rowland, Mathew. 2013. Federal Probation. Sept. 2013. Volume 77. Issue 2. p 12-12. Schiffner, Bill. 2013. Corrections Forum. July/Aug 2013. Vol. 22. Issue 4, p. 38-39

Peer Feedback Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Peer Feedback - Essay Example The essay’s strongest arguments are the arguments for garlic and the herb butterbur because of the evidence using credible sources. They support the efficacy of these alternative medicines when compared to drug options. The weakest argument is for aloe vera because of the appeal to tradition fallacy. Just because something is used for thousands of years, it does not mean that it is an effective treatment. There should be studies that support that aloe vera helps heal minor burns with little or no side effects. The writer addresses counterargument on the application of these alternative medicines to all levels of diseases: â€Å"While it is not a good idea to try to treat second to third degree burns or extreme high blood pressure on your own, it is a good idea to consult your physician about using alternatives to modern medicine until such a time that your body requires the extra boost from the chemical medications.† This argument is helpful because the writer limits the application of alternative medicine and cautions people to not immediately depend on it. Does the author use signal phrases to introduce quotes? (Signal phrases are discussed in more detail in section 10g of The New Century Handbook. ) If so, provide an example. If not, suggest the correct way to do this. The author does not mention her sources in the sentences anymore and just puts in-text citation. For instance, the paper says: â€Å"While butterbur can cause allergic reactions in people sensitive to marigolds and ragweed the more common side effects are belching, headache, fatigue, and gastrointestinal issues† (NCCAM.NIH.GOV, 2012). The writer should have also mentioned the organization and its mission/goals, thereby determining its biases, for instance: â€Å"According to the The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2012)†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Yes, the quotations are followed with explanations. For example:

The Law of Contract Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Law of Contract Assignment - Essay Example The legal issues to be addressed are, whether the shop can rely on the exclusion clause and whether Laura has any remedy to recover the damages for the loss caused to her due to the fire in her hairdressing salon from Electro Mart. Laura has to establish that the shop owner cannot rely on the exemption clause in the standard terms of the contract. An exemption clause in a contract purports to exclude liability of one of the parties to the contract, under certain circumstances. The Statute sets out that no contract term can exclude or limit liability in any way for negligently causing death or injury1. Furthermore, if there is other loss or damage, liability for negligence cannot be excluded or restricted if the term of notice is unreasonable. Finally, if a contract term or notice makes efforts to exclude or restrict liability for negligence, agreement to or awareness of this is not of itself to be taken as indicative of the voluntary acceptance of any risk2. Laura was misled by the s hop assistant in respect of the usage of the stereo with the small capacity speakers at her salon. ... n clauses may be particularly harmful in consumer contracts, where the disequilibrium between the bargaining positions of the parties may be substantial."3This constitutes the reason for the existence of statutory controls on exclusion clauses, like the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 (UCTA) and the Unfair Terms of the Consumer Contract Regulations 1999 (UTCCR). The UCTA applies to the contract for the purchase of the stereo by virtue of section 1(3) which states that the Act applies to business liability which is defined as "liability for breach of obligations or duties arising from things done or to be done in the course of a business". The contract entered by Laura is included by virtue of section 3 which covers consumer contracts and section 12 which states that a person deals as a consumer if she neither makes the contract in the course of a business nor holds herself out as doing so and the shop owner makes the contract in the course of business. It is essential to establish that Laura is a consumer. Laura had purchased the Stereo for use at her flat and also at her Hairdressing Salon; also she does not purchase and sell Stereos. This is borne out by the case of R&B Customs Brokers Co Ltd v United Dominion Trust Ltd, in which the contract excluded liability for breach of certain statutory implied terms and the exclusion clause, was subject to section 6 of the UCTA. The Court of Appeal held that the purchase of the car was only incidental to the company's business activity, which meant that the purchase was not made in the course of business and so the plaintiff company was dealing as a consumer. Thus the defendant could not exclude liability for the breach of implied terms4. Reasonableness in respect of contract terms is clarified in section 11, which states

Why is the family dysfunctional (Hunger, Lan Samantha Chang) Essay

Why is the family dysfunctional (Hunger, Lan Samantha Chang) - Essay Example However, sometimes families fail to fulfill the emotional and physical needs of their children. In addition to this communication pattern of the family limits the expressions of the feeling and needs of the children. Children who grow in such families end up developing low self-esteem. They start thinking that their feelings are not important and therefore there is no need to express them, as they believe that no one will take them seriously. The end result of this is that as adults they may form unsatisfying relationships. One of the main reasons behind the dysfunction of families is that one of the parents have compulsion or addiction (e.g. alcohol, drugs, gambling, promiscuity, overeating or overworking) which has a negative influence on the family members. Sometimes one of the parents as a primary mean may also use physical violence, in order to get control. In such cases there are chances that children must have watched violence or they must have been a part of violence, like they have been forced to punish their siblings or they may also live in fright of an explosive outburst. Another reason of family dysfunction can be that parents usually threaten to withdraw their children from or are unable to provide their children with the basic physical and financial care. Similarly one of the parents may also be unsuccessful in providing emotional support to their children. Sometime one of the parents may also exert powerful authoritarian control on their child. Such families are often adhering to some particular beliefs, which may be personal, religious, political or financial. Compliance with expectations related to a specific role and with certain kind of roles is expected without any kind of flexibility. A great deal of variability is found in the ways through which dysfunctional behaviors and interaction occurs amongst families and in the severity and kinds of these dysfunctions.

Proposal for CROSS CULTURAL EFFECTIVENESS CULTURE GAP AND EXPATRIATE Research Paper

Proposal for CROSS CULTURAL EFFECTIVENESS CULTURE GAP AND EXPATRIATE TRAINING - Research Paper Example I picked this topic because it will help me outline the need for an international organization to have leaders who can adjust to different environments quickly and work with partners and employees of other culture. With globalization, it is not wise to assume that a manager who does well in a given a country will automatically succeed in another different country. International Corporations, therefore, need needs an explicit measure of ensuring efficient cross culture integration in its management. This integration can help understand leaders who work in the newly globalized market After outlining my proposal, I will review relevant sources of information to prepare an annotated bibliography. To compile annotated bibliography I will take into consideration various books such as Handbook of Intercultural Training by Dan Landis, Reading and Cases in International human management by Mendenhall, Mand Expatriate Journeying: A holistic perspective on the care and development of overseas personnel by Westwood,D. Once the annotated bibliography is developed and submitted, the paper will be completed by making educated recommendations on how to integrate the difference in culture and globalization. I will also make clear suggestions on what the future steps international organization must make to ensure cross-cultural effectiveness. The paper will also make a recommendation on further area of the subject that needs further

Theories and idiology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Theories and idiology - Essay Example An individual, a group, nation or state might believe in theory or ideology because of many reasons such as injustice, or any form discrimination practiced against them. It also might be the economic situation that helped this theory or ideology to be espoused. Another reason is the greed of colonialism from one state to another practiced by a leader or dictator such as Hitler. This essay ‎will be discussing three of the most popular ideologies, which are feminism, nationalism and globalism. In addition, a review and examination of each of the theories’ core ideas and its primary variations will be done. A comparison of those core ideas across the three theories and ideologies will be provided. It will go in depth to discover any commonalities or sharp distinctions between the theories. Feminism is one of the controversial theories among feminists or non-feminist. From the non-feminist perspective that women are humans as men and the declaration of human rights ensures all rights for both parties. On the other hand, feminists do not agree with that and ask for rights that were not given to them. Females do not look at themselves as sex objects, rather they recognize their gender dynamics and what they want to consider as their choice and as what they can do to their societies. Feminists want to free women from the dominance of masculine systems. They are not equal, even with the language, for instance, Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence and wrote, â€Å"All men are created equal,† (Sargent, 166). Another example of the language used by system For example, â€Å"a female first-year university student is called a freshman. Why? Not long ago women could not attend the universities, and the term implies that. Of course, language use change s, and most people now use freshman to refer to both male and female first-year students; but the word is a relic of past sexual discrimination† (Sargent, 166). More than

Principles Of Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Principles Of Management - Essay Example For effectiveness in the performance of any business enterprise, therefore, the management of the organization must devise a mechanism for influencing the resources of the company in a proper manner to enable it achieves its objectives (Yeoh & Koronios, 2010). Effective management is a significant component for achievement of the optimum productivity of an organization. Using an appropriate management and leadership style, the top, and the middle managers in an organization can shape both the internal and the external environment of the organization to ensure improvement in productivity within the organization. Motivation of the employees is one aspect of ensuring proper management of the internal environment of the organization, while provision of the essential social services is a responsibility of an organization to ensure appropriate cooperation and collaboration with the external environment of the organization. Management in an organization draws from a multivariate of principles and styles, thus to understand the nature of management in an organization, this paper will analyses management through a discussion on the significance of management duties, the importance of team management and communication, effective leadership as well as the ethical factors influencing effective management in an organization (Walker, 2004). The management functions in an organization are geared towards coordination of the efforts of the employees towards the meeting of the objectives of the organization. The coordination purposes are done using available resources in the organization to ensure efficiency and effectiveness in the utilization of the resources to have an optimum output. The management functions in an organization thus include planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling the endeavors of the organization. Planning as a management function of an organization contains all the

How Can College Students Manage Their Money Essay

How Can College Students Manage Their Money - Essay Example A student should also be able to separate wants from needs and prioritize the most significant things. â€Å"Scholarships.com† explains that a good plan must be put into action after identifying the differences between wants and needs (Web). Understanding wants and needs helps in tracking a student’s spending and making sure that a student has sufficient resources in the event of an emergency and enhances making informed money management decisions. Moreover, a student may opt for a checking account that reduces fees on withdrawals or fund transfer and therefore shopping around to find a bank with convenient ATM’s near campus may hugely reduce some unnecessary costs. Just in line with the banking, a student should be able to keep an eye on the account balance before spending against it thus reducing cases where a student budgets for money that is perhaps not existing. Additionally, most students misuse credit cards hence attracting dangerous financial position.   Many students currently use credit cards in carrying out their transactions thus making it easier to amass a large amount of debt while in college. A student should go easy with the credit cards and understand that the easiest way of spending beyond one’s means is charging the credit card (â€Å"Scholarships.com† Web). Students should, therefore, use credit cards sparingly and avoid paying interest on even simple things such as on a bag of chips.

You Need to Be Born an Entrepreneur Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

You Need to Be Born an Entrepreneur - Article Example It has always kept the mankind thinking, ‘what is the key to success?’, ‘is there a devised formula for it or you should have in your gene to excel’. Success is the most tempting and sought after the object of all time, it has been an obsession for every human being and our driving force. This makes it a valid and crucial subject to analyze. In some circles, it is strongly believed that you have to be born an entrepreneur to become an entrepreneur. They have a very strong theory and of course some decent examples to follow their belief. It is thought that you have to have it in your gene to be successful. A good example of that is Luke Johnson, who is the proud owner of not one but three enterprises; Pizza Express, Strada and Patisserie Valerie. He confesses that his entrepreneurial skills are a gift from his parents, mainly father since he has always been self-employed and a great source of inspiration (Treanor, 2013). It is learned through studies that it is very likely for a person to become an entrepreneur if he has a close affiliation with a person who is self-employed, most commonly a family member or a friend. Economics Professors, David Blanchflower, of Dartmouth College US, and Andrew Oswald, from the UK's University of Warwick, agrees to this hypothesis that if a parent is self-employed it is more likely for their children to become self-employed, i.e. entrepreneurs (Treanor, 2013). It is also a common belief that if you acquire certain characteristics, then you are more likely to end up as an entrepreneur. It is stated by some members of the Young Entrepreneur Council (YEC) that you need to pose some qualities by default (or birth).  

Psychosocial Orientation to Sexuality Essay Example for Free

Psychosocial Orientation to Sexuality Essay Environment has always been one of the major factors affecting our decisions and personality. Psychologists say its either â€Å"nurture† or â€Å"nature† which determines our personalities as we grow up. Nevertheless, our sexuality is also part of who we are. How we act or think in regard to sexual issues is also developed as we mature into adolescents. Various social factors affect a person’s sexuality. Primarily, it is the parents’ responsibility to make sure that their children are properly educated about sex. As a kid, I was oriented by my parents and older relatives that sex is a process designed by the heavens to unite married couples so they can procreate. As a young Christian, I have this notion that I was conceived by this process and only couples who were united by marriage have the permission from God to perform them. Talking about sex at home was actually limited if not restricted. There was a certain uneasiness enveloping the ones belonging in a conversation where a I would suddenly bring it up. It was awkward in a way that my parents believed I was not ready yet to comprehend the real nature of sex. However, I guess sexuality is an inescapable issue amongst children who are beginning to notice changes and differences between their private parts and their playmates’. A friend of the opposite sex definitely has dissimilar body parts than me. It has always been fun to explore and observe friends’ parts especially when it is in a group. Of course, not until we reached the 11th year of our age. Suddenly, things were getting too awkward for us. My playmates were starting to get aloof. Others have stopped invitations to look and some just plainly said, â€Å"My mom said they’re private. † How the privacy of such thing has never occurred to me until I was able to see certain pars of my body grow. Most of my physical parts were getting weirder each day and they did not feel comfortable at all. One of the huge factors which influence my sexuality is the depiction of sex in the television. Media have absolutely bombarded me with concepts that are in direct contrast to my early education of sex. Television series, movies, reality shows, magazines and even anime shows are transparent in portraying sexual activities as normal between two people in a relationship. Sometimes even same-sex relationships. Pornography is also widespread in our society today which I believe has a great impact on the fact that teenagers today in America are sexually active. In my case, it is reasonable to admit that I have my shares of hidden fantasies and desires but one good thing that I am proud of is that I am able to control them in a decent way. Religion also plays a major part in expressing one’s sexuality. It is widely know that Christianity does not allow couples outside marriage to have sexual intercourse. Pre-marital sex is a sin and is not tolerated by the Church. Contraceptives are also not encouraged therefore, if I were to ask how I think religion has affected my sexuality; I would claim that it did not lessen or eliminate my sexual desires rather it remained as a mere reason to control it and repress it. The topic of sexuality is widespread among religious, social and political debates. It comprises of a general idea which is too sensitive to be disregarded easily. However, I believe that one has his/her own rights towards his/her sexuality but are limited to what the law constitutes. A person can be gay, lesbian or bisexual but the mere idea that a person’s sexuality is being developed and identified with different names shows that it is a psychological issue that needs to be studied more thoroughly. It is a subject too complex that must also be given enough education and protection from families and authorities.

HR Manual for Tata Power Community Development

HR Manual for Tata Power Community Development Tata Power Company (TPC), a pioneer in the power sector, has historically been committed to environment enrichment and community services. TPC has been undertaking corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities for decades. Tata Power Community Development Trust (TPCDT) is a CSR function deployment organization of TPC. With more and more power generation projects coming into existence, activities related to CSR have increased. TPCDT now required a set of policies and guidelines in order to have smooth governance and operational efficiency in terms of human resource management. Creating a well defined set of rules and policies in organizations manuals could help to avert problematic situations. Hence, the objective of this project is to frame a Human Resources (HR) Policy Manual for TPCDT. The project also aimed at studying various aspects of Human Resources in this organization, analyzing and incorporating HR Policies. Methodology for the project included examining the areas of operation of organization and assimilating information about its operational aspects. After gathering data, the policies that need be incorporated in Human Resource Manual of TPCDT were identified and an in-depth analysis of their applicability to the organization was carried out. The next step included study of various employee and labour related acts as a part of identification of compliance and necessary requirements. HR Manuals of similar organizations and trusts were also referred to understand overall content and flow of the HR Manual for TPCDT. Major observations were noticed in terms of organization structure and internal management systems. The whole structure of TPCDT was to be redesigned. Various grades and designations were identified in accordance with those of Tata Power Company Ltd. A whole new performance appraisal system was designed to suit the hierarchy of the organization. Further for smooth function within the organization an efficient grievance handling mechanism was also established. For all the above major observations certain policies and strategies were recommended by me. Majority of my proposals and recommendations were accepted viz. TPCDTs Organization Structure, Grades and Designations for TPCDT, Three Tier Performance Appraisal System, Looped Grievance Handling Mechanism, Recruitment Flowchart, Forms and Templates, etc. Various activities that were of assistance in formulating the HR Manual included literature review, discussions with HR personnel and higher management of the organization, organizational analysis of TPCDT, referring other organizations manual, academic study material and continuous guidance from company guide and faculty guide. Finally as an outcome of my summer internship project, an HR Manual has been drafted catering to the needs and requirements of TPCDT. This manual was accepted for implementation by the management of TPCDT. Introduction Tata Power Community Development Trust (TPCDT) is a registered trust under Bombay Public Trust Act-1950, dated 13th April, 2009, with its objects as relief of poor, advancement and propagation of education learning, for providing medical aid and relief and advancement of any object to general public utility without any profit. In the subsequent years after its registration, TPCDT started extending its area of operations with its objectives as follows: Relief of poor including the help from establishment and support of institutions, educational fund for the relief in poverty including relief of any distress Providing scholarships, prize and fellowships in any branch of science art or commerce, or in assisting students to study whether in India or aboard either by payment of lump sum or by payment of periodical sums or by giving interest free loans or at nominal interest Providing medical aid and relief, including for establishments, maintenance and support for hospitals, dispensaries, convalescent homes, rest-houses, recreation centers and institutions or funds for medical aid and relief for promotion of health and hygiene Providing aid to any charitable institutions Establishing, support, maintaining and for grant aid to goushalas and other institutions working for the protection and preservation of animals and birds. As the scope of operations increased, TPCDT required a set of policies and guidelines to have smooth governance and maintain its operational efficiency. In order to maintain quality of services rendered by TPCDT, it required hiring of personnel and various other personnel policies. There were some issues coming from various operational locations of TPCDT in context of organizations HR policies and guidelines. Issues like defining a link in between Tata Power and TPCDT in terms of management hierarchy were coming into picture. Other queries included: What can be the maximum permissible benefits and allowances can be granted for TPCDT employees? How the recruitment and selection policy will work? What will be the grievance handling procedure? What should be the procedure for performance appraisal? Solutions to such queries were required in form of written guidelines and policies clearly defining organizations human resource policies. For this vary purpose, TPCDT required an HR Manual to have all sets of policies and procedures compiled in a handbook format for smooth personnel management. Each employee should be able to use this manual as a guidebook when he or she needs to apply organization policy in a given situation. Every employee should feel free to consult this manual to assist in the interpretation of Human Resources policies. 1.1 About HR Manual: The Human Resources Policy Manual is Organizations Human Resources policies written into a usable guidebook for all employees. This manual not only outlines an organizations policy toward the various phases of the employer-employee relationship, but it also indicates how policy is to be administered. Consequently, each employee should be able to use this manual as a guidebook when he or she needs to apply organization policy in a given situation. Every employee should feel free to consult this manual to assist in the interpretation of Human Resources policies. Research and experience has shown that written policies promote consistency, continuity, and better understanding within an organization. When policies are put into writing in the form of a manual, they add a visual effect to their overall purpose. Moreover, written policies help management by eliminating the need for time-consuming and expensive memos, bulletins, and announcements. Written policies also aid supervisors and managers in consistently achieving fair and equitable interpretations of policy that require action on a regular, recurring basis. Moreover, fellow employees feel a deeper understanding of their role in the organization when they realize that policies are written and thereby uniformly administered. Employees feel more secure, confident, and more at one with the organization when policies are made clear for them. Policies promote a movement toward responsibility and accountability. Furthermore, the ever-present tendency to pass-the-buck is reduced to a great extent. Specifically speaking, this Policy Manual is designed to provide management with the following advantages. Understanding Written policy is one of the best antidotes in the Human Resources medicine chest for avoiding troubles an organizational grapevine may cause. Even though everything is subject to interpretation, the odds overwhelmingly favour the written word compared with the oral. Line of Authority Top management cannot make all the decisions that need to be made within the organizations community. Often at times they feel the need to because they are afraid to release that authority to subordinates. Naturally, it signifies that if top management felt that subordinates could make decisions like top management would, the reluctance would be reduced. The Policy Manual achieves this desired relationship. It thus results in a solid delineation of authority. Consistency Consistent application of organizations policies is constructive because it means employees will be treated equally. It prevents, to a great extent, the seepage of prejudice and bias in the decisions of supervision. The achievement of this one virtue takes a colossal step toward the maintenance of satisfactory employer-employee harmony. The need for a Policy Manual is very essential. In short, no organization is invulnerable to the fallacies of human nature. These written policies should increase understanding of organization-wide policy guidelines. Authority and Distribution- Every employee of organization has access to this Policy Manual in handbook format. This Policy Manual is up-to-date and contains the complete and accurate policies of organization as of the published date. Supplements to the Policy Manual- The policies, practices and guidelines in this Policy Manual will remain in effect until changes are considered necessary as a result of internal growth, competitive forces, or as a result of general economic conditions pertaining to higher education communities. However, any such change to be made on any Human Resources policy or practice will be made only after consideration is given to the mutual advantages, benefits, and responsibilities of such changes on supervisors or managers and on other employees of the organization. Management Rights- This manual describes general Human Resources policies and procedures for the organization. This manual should not be construed as, and does not constitute an offer of employment for any specific duration, nor is it intended to state any terms of employment. Organization reserves the right to change, modify, suspend, interpret or cancel its policies and practices at its sole discretion and without advance notice. This right extends to both published and unpublished policies. 1.2 Company Profile: Tata Power Company Limited Tata Power Company is a pioneer in the power sector has historically been committed to environment enrichment and community services. The company reaffirms commitment to the conservation of ecological systems and sustainable development through afforestation, water conservation, nurturing and developing of local species of flora and fauna in our areas of operation. As Indias largest private power utility, Tata Power has set the momentum of growth. In the quest to deliver sustainable energy, Tata Power is spreading its footprint nationwide, creating new benchmarks in operational efficiencies, investing in global resources and redefining paradigms. Tata Powers strength lies in fulfilling their commitments and their ability to manage well in the changing environment. Company takes pride in building lasting and trusting relationship with its customers along with a legacy of caring for communities in and around its areas of operations. Tata Power strives to lead the reform process for sustainable power with an aim to redefine the contours of Indian Power Sector. Tata Power Company and Tata Power Community Development Trust (TPCDT) TPC had undertaken the CSR activities for decades, reflecting the companys commitment towards sustainable energy generation without undue compromise to human and environmental development. These activities were undertaken as a voluntary initiative by the employees of TPC, and there was no separate CSR department. However, with large scale expansion, the need to have CSR as a separate entity was felt. The dilemma for the decision manager was whether to create a separate CSR department or continue with the existing set up. Other related issues needed to be addressed strategically as well as tactically to maintain a balance between shareholders interest and other stakeholders. Tata Power Companys CSR deployment bodies are: Project Description This project deals with preparing HR Manual for Tata Power Community Development Trust (TPCDT) and drafting various forms and templates for administrative purpose of TPCDT. 2.1 Methodology of Project Understanding Organization (Organizational Analysis) Identification of suitable policies for Tata Power Community Development Trust (TPCDT) Identification of related acts and regulatory framework Drafting HR Manual and designing forms and templates Review and feedbacks; incorporating corrections (if any) Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Areas of operations Existing organizational structure Existing work mechanisms Through management discussions, analysis of other HR Manuals, etc Concluding policies for manual Identification of regulatory framework and compliance in terms of identified HR policies To compile policies in HR Manual and designing relevant forms and templates To make necessary changes as suggested by management Step 1 Understanding Organization (Organizational Analysis): Organizational analysis aims to generate an understanding of the organizational structure and culture of the system the project is looking at. This can help in understanding the ease or difficulty with which new strategies can be adopted. Organizational analysis is about organizations and people. This covers issues of structure and formality. But it also encompasses issues of process and, in a very fundamental way, change. The subject matter can be very abstract, and is drawn from literatures concerned with organizations in general rather than any specific sector. It also covers underlying change and organizational dynamics, which are common, to a great degree, to all organizations whatever sector they occupy. The project was started by referring literature on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and operational activities of TPCDT. It comprised of data related to TPCDTs legal documents, field of operations and activities of TPCDT, about linkage between TPCDT and TPC, etc. The first and foremost task was to understand the organizational structure and its operational aspect. For this the TPCDTs Trust Deed was read by me in order to understand the purpose of incorporation of the trust. The next part included understanding the current organizational structure. Initially the structure of TPCDT was as follows: Some issues were identified in the existing organizational structure. These issues included: There were no clearly defined set of rules or regulations in terms of management, reporting and authority. A number of personnel from Tata Power were performing the roles of TPCDT personnel at some locations. There was no clear distinction as to differentiate the employment roles of the individual between TPCDT and TPC. In the absence of a HR Policy Manual, the management and decisions pressure was directed towards Head Office. Grades and designations were not defined. The link in between who is eligible for which designation from TPC to TPCDT was also missing. Guidelines for recruitment and other administrative procedures were also lacking to some extent. In order to understand the whole system properly, the current structure of company was examined again. On the basis of observations, a few organizational structures for TPCDT were proposed by me. The proposed structures were as follows: TPCDTs Organization Structure: Proposed Structure-1 TPCDTs Organization Structure: Proposed Structure-2 TPCDTs Organization Structure: Proposed Structure -3 TPCDTs Organization Structure: Proposed Structure-4 TPCDT CEO at Head Office (Support Departments: HR, Accounts, Operations, and Consultants.) Regional Head Assistant Regional Head Program Head Project Head Assistant Program Head Project Coordinator Assistant Project Coordinator Senior Field Worker Field Worker From the above proposed structures, the (proposed organizational structure -4) was finalized with some inputs from proposed structure 1, 2 and 3. The next important aspect in order to proceed towards framing policies and guidelines for TPCDT was Grades and Designations Structure. TPCDT required a clear structure in terms of designation on which a personnel is hired and also a framework for a TPC employee to join TPCDT and for which designation he is placed in TPCDT. After analyzing the organization and conducting necessary research, the following grades and designations table was proposed by me. The designations were identified in line with Tata Power Companys grades and designations. In the following a clear distinction is given between Tata Power Company and TPCDT. This also describes if a person moves from TPC to TPCDT, he will be placed on which designation. The table also highlights the linkage between Tata Powers employees and TPCDT employees Grade in TPCL Designations TPCL Designation TPCDT Grade in TPCDT Sub Grade/ Designation Sub Grades A General Manager CEO A/I ÂÂ   ÂÂ   B1 Deputy General Manager B2 Assistant General Manager C1 Chief Manager Chief Program Head B/II Regional Head B1/II A C2 Senior Manager Assistant Regional Head B2II B D1 Manager Program Head C/III Program Head C1/III A D2 Assistant Manager Project Head C2/III B Assistant Program Head C3/III C D3 Executive Project Coordinator D/IV Project Coordinator D1/IV A D4 Officer Assistant Project Coordinator D2/ IV B E1 Worker Field Worker E/V Senior Field Worker E1/V A ÂÂ   ÂÂ   ÂÂ   ÂÂ   Junior Field Worker E2/V B Note: This table was also accepted later on in grades and designation part. The grades were taken as I, II, III, IV and V. Step 2 Identification of suitable policies for Tata Power Community Development Trust (TPCDT) In this phase the key areas suitable for TPCDT were to be identified. Various discussions were made with Col Prakash Tewari (Retd) who is the Deputy General Manager of CSR and Rehabilitation Resettlement Department in Tata Power and Mr. Inam Mukkhadam who is accounts head for TPCDT. A few questions that came up in the early phases of the project were: What all will be the contents of the HR Manual that will be suitable with the area of operation of TPCDT? What can be the maximum permissible benefits and allowances can be granted considering the fact that TPCDT is a nonprofit organization? How to understand the working conditions of people in their work areas? How to distinguish between the working conditions of personnel among various areas of operations? In this phase of the project various secondary data sources were searched and data was collected. Most of the data was related to companies and profit making organizations. But as this organization is a nonprofit organization, financial freedom is limited as compared to a profit making entity. In the initial phase the following policies that could have been a part of manual were identified by me. A copy of the document first presented to management is attached in Attachment2. After a series of discussions and suggestions the content of HR Manual for TPCDT were finalized. The content comprised of the following: Introduction: It included a brief introduction and background of the organization. This is further continued by briefly describing organizations HR philosophy i.e. vision, mission, objectives and values of the organization and purpose of this HR manual. The literature for this part was identified from the trust deed of TPCDT and management guidelines. Employment: This consists of employment policy of TPCDT and policy of TPCDT to transfer or promote well performing and capable employees to fill vacancies so that employees are provided with opportunities to widen their exposure and further their career development within TPCDT. The next important aspect of employment block in a manual is describing the organization structure and hierarchy. Then is the categorization of employees and associates. It also describes the type and nature of employment in the organization. They were identified as the following in context with TPCDT: Probationer: An employee who has been hired for a permanent position and is put through a probation period Trainee: A person who is freshly qualified or new to the sector may be appointed Interns: Students undergoing practical training with the organization, as a part of their academic Curriculum for a period ranging from 1 to 6 months Fixed Term Employees: A person who has been hired on a Fixed Term Contract Employment based on an identified project, the duration of which may or may not last its specified tenure. Permanent Employee: A person who has successfully completed his/her probation period whose service has been confirmed in writing, by the Organization. Associates: These are experts from various fields having specialized knowledge and expertise Contract Staff: Employees belonging to contractors deployed in the Organizations premises by the Contractor Overseas Interns: Students from overseas universities who undertake practical training with the organizations. Recruitment and Selection End Job Analysis, Employee Qualification/ Specification Posting of Advertisement on Internet/ Newspaper, etc Confirmation Appointment, Induction, Training and Development Staffing: Tests/ Interviews Receiving and short listing of CVs Requirement at Location/Head Office CV s Selected Rejected No YesThis section was identified as one of the most important part of internal human resource management. In context of work areas and requirements a chart was proposed by me, which was finalized later with some minor adjustments in terminology for the purpose of recruitment and selection flowchart. The final chart is as follows: Following activities were of assistance in formulating this flowchart: Literature review Discussions with HR personnel and higher management of the organization Organizational analysis of TPCDT Code of conduct: This part of manual was designed on the lines of Tata Powers code of conduct. All Tata Group of Companies have their internal policy on code of conduct. In order to distinguish between Tata Power and TPCDT separate code of conduct was drafted in lines with Tata Code of Conduct which was having few elements from Tata Code of Conduct and other elements form the observations out of organizational analysis from Step 1 i.e. Organizational Analysis. Performance appraisal: The purpose of performance appraisal is for a supervisor and an employee to have a candid discussion about performance expectations and actual performance. The employees actual level of performance is compared to the expected level of performance using standards that were developed by the supervisor with input from the employee. The benefits to be gained from conducting performance appraisals include: Recognizing accomplishments Identifying newly acquired competencies Preparing employee development plans Planning improvement where deficiencies are found Goal-setting Communication between supervisors and employees A new performance appraisal system was identified for TPCDT. A new Three Tier Performance Appraisal System for TPCDT was suggested by me. In most of the Tata Group of Companies Performance Management System is followed. But after few discussions with higher management officials, it was accepted in the proposal phase itself. This system works as follows: The first phase will comprise of Self Performance Review. Employee will fill the form in 5 days of time. This has to be filled in by the candidate himself. He will be judging himself on parameters stating how the employee judges himself/herself. The employee should fill in the KRAs / Goals in the beginning of the year. HR dept will then provide employee a Subordinate Performance Appraisal Form. This form will deal with a critical evaluation of the employee by its other fellow employees or subordinates. This form is also on the same grounds measuring various parameters stating how employees subordinates judge him/her. The next and most vital part in the three phased appraisal system is IO-RO-SRO Performance Appraisal. This appraisal will have remarks from the immediate superior of the candidate who is known as IO and then it will be forwarded to the next superior RO of the candidate. Their remarks will be recorded in a form and along with all the three forms; the file is given to SRO for finalization of the result. (IO- Initiating Officer, RO- Reviewing Officer, SRO- Senior Reviewing Officer) [Note: An Initiating Officer (IO) is the immediate superior of an employee. A Reviewing Officer is the superior to Initiating Officer and a Senior Reviewing Officer (SRO) is the immediate superior to Reviewing Officer (RO)]. The evaluation aspect and flow will be as follows in all the performance appraisal forms with an exception to a final remark column in IO-RO-SRO Performance Appraisal Form by SRO Suppose there are 20 attributes on which self/subordinate/IO-RO have to give point out of five. Here five is the highest and one being the lowest. Based on the result employee will be rewarded. Based on this report, salary increments and/or shifting to next level or fresh contracts in the same/ higher grade are made. Promotion: For the purpose of promotion it was collectively decided by management to give on merit. It was decided that it can either be based on the report generated from Three Tier Performance Appraisal System or direct promotion from the Managing Trustee of the Organization. However, special consideration will be required for promotion over and above the post of Program Head. Promotion will be approved after approval from Managing Trustee. Salary payment: It was decided by management that the Managing Trustee of the trust must approve salary of all employees. Additionally, salaries above a threshold set by the Board of Trustees must be approved by the Compensation Committee of the Board of Trustees if required. It was decided that salary changes, including certain types of supplementary compensation and salary during a leave of absence, require the same authorization and review process. Employee recognition and awards: According to studies, employees work better if they are given incentives for good performance. People naturally love to be recognized so it is important that companies and organizations set up an awards giving system to keep its people inspired. In addition to my inputs in HR Manual for TPCDT, a new policy on having employee recognition and awards was proposed by me. This part of manual would define the procedures and guidelines related to Employee Recognition and Awards. This has also been accepted after a few discussions and awards like Karmyogi Award, Spot Awards, Best team Award, Best TPCDT Performer Award, and etc were introduced. Every individual will be evaluated by his/her Initiating Officer (IO) and Reviewing Officer (RO). This will be further reviewed by Senior Reviewing Officer (SRO). One of the differentiating fact about these awards is they are not single awards. As many competent employees can be nominated and given these awards. This decision was taken to increase team effort and motivate individuals. Job rotation: Job rotation is rotation from one function to another, in same location or different. Rotation is in the same function as well as different function but may be at various locations. It was collectively decided that the minimum period after which an employee may undergo job rotation should be 2yeras. Following activities were of assistance in determining the policy on job rotation: Management discussions Literature review Discussion with current employees of TPCDT Grievances redress mechanism: For any organization, a proper grievance handling mechanism is considered to be very important. For this purpose a new multi-loop grievances redress mechanism was proposed by me. It was designed considering the fact of small loops. Each loop is having a specific decision related to grievance handling outcome. This mechanism was also accepted by management as official grievance redress mechanism for TPCDT. This is in a flowchart structure and has different loops for different situations and grievance handling. Receipt of a Grievance in TPCDT (Within any department or area) Assessment of the Grievance by Grievance Officer (One at each location) Grievance sent to Head Office For review by (Chief Grievance Officer) Discussions within Board and Managing Trustee Grievance Resolved Sent to Chief Executive Officer Solution Sent to Origin Site Yes No Grievance Resolved Yes No Employment separation: This policy was drafted as per management directions. It included procedures related to job separation and types of job separation. The main focus while drafting this policy was on providing clear guidelines to employees about various policies, guidelines and formalities necessary at the time of job separation. Various types of job separation areas that were identified are as follows: Termination: Termination of employment is an inevitable part of personnel activity within any Organization. Resignation: An employee resignation policy is an organizations official instruction for initiating and processing the voluntary separation of an employee.ÂÂ  An organizations employee resignation policy officially compels staff to follow the procedures. Resignation procedures protect the employees rights and the organizations interest. Official forms confirm and document that the resignation adhered to policy. It was decided that an employee resignation may be submitted in writing to the Chairman/CEO 3 month prior to the final working date. Earned but un-used vacation time (pro-rated to the last day of employment) will be paid. Sick leaves left unused will not be paid. In order to have a smooth flow of instructions, a resignation process flowchart was proposed by me for TPCDT. The chart is as follows: Resignation Process Flowchart Initiating Officer Returns Resignation Letter to Officer Division inform HO regarding date of release Resignation Acceptance Letter Handed to Employee Approving Authority Approves Resignation END Reviewing Officer (RO) Returns Resignation to Officer Resignation Letter is handed back to Officer START Officer Submitting Resignation Letter Officer Reverses Decision Forward to HR at HO for further proceedings Reporting and Discussion with Initiating Officer Discussions Take Place Forward to CEO at HO for Further D

Air pollution control residues

Air pollution control residues INTRODUCTION Description of Overall Problem Air Pollution Control (APC) residues are the solid output of the flue gas treatment equipment installed on incinerators (this report refers specifically to APC Residues from incinerators handling Municipal Solid Waste MSW). They comprise the fly ash from incineration (middle and fine grades) together with the reagents (mainly lime and activated carbon) used in the flue gas treatment. Thus, they contain: Volatile contaminants from the original waste (inc chlorides, metals), Compounds created in the incineration process (inc dioxins), Further materials from the flue-gas treatment process (sulphates, together with high alkalinity). Therefore they are classified as hazardous waste. Approximately 170,000t/y (Technology Strategy Board 2009) of such residues are produced in the UK 3-4% of the total waste mass incinerated (Environment Agency, 2002). This tonnage is growing as more waste is incinerated to generate electricity and heat, and to reduce landfill. While increased energy recovery and reduced landfill are worthwhile in themselves, achieving them has created the problem of the hazardous APC residues. In the UK the prevalent destination for these residues has been landfill, but this option is under threat from tightening landfill Waste Acceptance Criteria, and rising landfill taxes, so new solutions are required. There are various treatment/recovery options available for APC residues. However these raise other concerns, primarily: Financial and energy cost of treatment Generation of further effluent Environmental impact of the treated waste Quality control of the recovered materials. Objectives and Scope The overall goal is to identify cost-effective management options for APC residues, within Waste Acceptance Criteria. The ultimate objectives of implementing such options are shown in Requirements (Appendix 1). For this study, the specific the objectives are: Briefly analyse the shortcomings of the existing methods of treatment and disposal of APC residue in landfills, along with the barriers in the UK for re-use of APC residues in various industries, such as cement aggregate, asphalt and ceramics. Propose energy- and cost-effective methods for the treatment of APC residue which reduce the leachability and amount of heavy metal/dioxins present. Also suggest a supplier of technology for each treatment method proposed. Compare the cost per tonne for each option, including treatment and disposal costs (including current and future landfill taxes), based on the hazardous classification of any remaining waste. Suggest potential re-use opportunities for materials recovered from the treatment process, indicating potential markets and revenues. The scope is focused on APC residues from municipal waste incineration. It is assumed that current incineration technology and operating conditions apply, with waste of current composition, resulting in residues of current composition. The objectives have been pursued in the context of current UK and EU regulation. This is explained in terms of the waste management hierarchy in table 1. Notes of Figure 1: Further processing leading to recovery may be in or outside the system boundary depending on whether the process is likely to be dedicated to this application. In either case the resulting wastestreams are inside the system boundary Landfill operations are outside the system boundary, but the long term leaching behaviour of all landfill waste will be considered, even if it meets WAC. Report structure This report has been structured to give an overall review of the management options for the Air Pollution Control residue, intended to provide a details of the findings related with work aiming to give recommendations on its treatment. Chapter 1. Background and scope. Chapter 2. Introduction to the residues, overview of major management strategies, legislative aspects, and environmental issues Chapter 3. Details on the residue treatment techniques, operation principles, and development status Chapter 4. Appraisal on the recovery and utilization techniques, operation principles, and development status. Chapter 5. Overview of status for available solutions, documentation level, assessment approach for environmental impacts, outline of important aspects for consideration, qualitative and quantitative comparison of each treatment processes. Chapter 6. Recommendations System Engineering Management Plan (SEMP) is listed in Appendix 2. This is an outline of system requirements and mechanisms for verifying whether the requirements are met. It will provide an overview to integrate different technical elements of the project. The plan will also describe the activities, processes and tools used to ensure an achievement of the project outcomes to the client and other stakeholders. Press Release is placed in Appendix 3 and this would form a basis of a publicity campaign for the project. MANAGEMENT AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR APC RESIDUE APC residues generation and characteristics APC residues come from the cleaning process of the gaseous emissions, which are produced during the incineration. Dry and semi-dry scrubber systems are used in the cleaning process and involve the injection of an alkaline material to remove acid gases, particulates and flue gas condensation (Sabbas et al. 2003). Finally, fabric filters in baghouses are used, where the fine particulates, i.e. the APC residues are focalized and removed from the gaseous emissions (Sabbas et al. 2003). It is estimated that APC residues represent 2-5% of the original waste on a wet basis and their production in the UK is approximately 128,000 tonnes per annum (Amutha Rani et al., 2008). In general, APC residues from municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) consist of fly ash, carbon and lime and contain dioxins and furans (Amutha Rani et al., 2008). They are highly alkaline materials (pH 12.0-12.6) and they comprise significant concentration of heavy metals, salts and micro-pollutants (Sabbas et al. 2003 ). Depending on the initial waste composition, the incinerator and the air pollution control system, their composition may vary significantly (Amutha Rani et al., 2008). The typical range of APC residues composition is shown in table 2. The APC residues are characterized as hazardous wastes (190107*, according to the EWC) due to their chemical content and their impact on the environment, primarily by leaching. Regulatory Framework Introduction Regulations and legislation on waste management in the UK have evolved considerably over the years as a result of identification of new pollutants, public health and environmental concerns, economics and technological advancement (Pocklington, 1997 and McDougall et al, 2001). This assertion suggests that legislation and regulations play a major role in ensuring sustainable waste management. In addition, the establishment of legislation on waste management shows the radically changing perception of humans and communities towards the environmental impact of human activities (Pocklington, 1997). Today, regulations and legislation provide a framework for efficient handling of hazardous wastes such as APC residue. Amutha Rani et al (2008) observed that sustainable management of APC residues depend on the implementation of UK and EU waste management legislation. The Existing regulatory and legislative framework for managing APC residues in the UK About 80% of the environmental legislation in the UK have their origins in the European Commission laws (Pocklington, 1997). The existing legislative and regulatory framework for APC waste management in the UK and EU include: Waste Incineration Directive Integrated Pollution Control Directive Landfill Directive and ensuing waste acceptance criteria/procedure EA guidance on the classification of hazardous waste Water Framework Directive However, the discussion on the regulatory and legislative framework for this project focuses mainly on the UK Landfill directive and EA guidance on classification of hazardous wastes. These subjects are pertinent within the boundary of this project more so as Landfill disposal is common in the UK. Also IPPC directive is discussed briefly to highlight the roles public participation and deployment of best available techniques in meeting our objectives. The key objectives of these legislation and regulation are to: Reduce the amount of APC residue generated and improving the quality of exhaust gas (McDougall et al, 2001) Reduce the amount of APC going to Landfill (EA Guidance on landfill, 2006) Prevent environmental impact (ESA 2004) Reduce the risk of human harm (US National Research Council 2000, ESA 2004) This diagram illustrates the relationships between the established regulatory framework and stages in the APC management process. There is no specific legislation covering recovery or reclassification of APC residue in the UK (ESA 2004). Quina et al (2008) also points out that legislation for recycling APC has not yet been established in the UK. The Integrated Pollution Control Directive: Directive 2008/1/EC concerning integrated pollution prevention and control This Directive aims at establishing means to prevent or reduce emissions into air, water and land (IPPC, 2008). Hence this directive is crucial as it suggests various methods of incineration and treatment that could reduce the impact of APC residues on the environment during incineration, treatment or landfill. The IPPC Directive is based on four principles namely: Best Available Technique (BAT) Integrated waste management Flexibility Public participation The BAT refers to the most effective methods of operation that would reduce environmental impact and enhance results such as making residues from incineration less hazardous. In the BAT, optimizing resources and harnessing or saving energy are prioritized (Gargulas N. and Mentzis A, 2007). Also, the BAT is flexible and no terms are imposed since it recognizes that different conditions apply in different cases. The Best Available Techniques Reference (BREF) is a reference document on technical input needed to determine the BAT to be adopted. This BREF contains technical information on available means of treating APC residues such as sintering, vitrification, stabilization and solidification. This project has considered the BATs to APC treatment and these methods are discussed in chapter 3. However, there are no BATs available for landfills. Notwithstanding, Landfill operators and APC treatment plants require permits issued by the Environment Agency with public support to ensure that t here are no health or environmental impacts as a result of their activities (Macleod C. et al 2006 and IPPC 2008). The role of the public is crucial in this directive. Article 15 of the Directive, gives the public full privileges to participate in decision making processes leading to the issuance of permits for installation of plants, and for carrying out technical and administrative changes. This aspect is very important especially in the proper project planning and execution (see SEMP). Therefore the installations of APC treatment facilities and the method involved are tailored to meet public requirements as well as legislative requirements. All hazards inherent in operating APC treatment facilities shall be made known to the public in accordance to this directive. Also the outcome of compliance tests on treatment facilities with regard to environmental impact shall be made public (IPPC 2008). Thus, it can be argued that since the public are key stakeholders in this project, good public perception is needed in accordance with the IPPC directive to ensure sustainable management of APC residues. Environment Agency guidance on classification of hazardous waste The essence of this guidance is to distinguish different kinds of wastes based on their physical and chemical properties which include their toxicity or hazardous nature. The Hazardous Waste Directive (HWD), council directive 91/689/EC and the Revised European Waste Catalogue (EWC) form the regulatory framework for this guidance. The HWD aims at defining hazardous wastes to ensure the correct management and regulation of such waste (EA Hazardous Waste 2008, pg 5). This directive identifies 14 hazardous properties of wastes, thus hazardous wastes are classified H1 H14 according to their hazardous properties (EA, Hazardous waste 2008). The EWC code is derived from the industry and process producing the waste, and the type of waste (EA hazardous waste 2008). APC residues are categorized as hazardous wastes with absolute entry (Rani et al 2008 and ESA 2004). Under the European Waste Catalogue (EWC), APC residues fall under the category of wastes from incinerators (waste management facilities) that have a generic code 19. The specific code for solid wastes generated from gas treatment such as APC residues is 19 01 07. Wastes resulting from the treatment of the APC residues such as the partially stabilized APC residue, the vitrified material etc are also categorized as hazardous with absolute entry (EA hazardous waste 2008). However, when tests confirm that the constituents of treated waste have become less or non hazardous, they can be reclassified as hazardous wastes with mirror entry or non-hazardous as the case may be(EA Hazardous waste 2008). Solidified and partly stabilized wastes are coded 19 03 06 and 19 06 04 respectively with absolute entries, while vitrified wastes from flue gas treatment are assigned the code 19 04 02. The Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste The primary objectives of the landfill directive are: To reduce waste going to landfill the prevent or minimize environmental impact as a result of waste disposal Stringent measures and standards have been set to reduce the burden and reliance on landfill (EA guidance on landfill, 2006). Landfills are classified into three categories: non-hazardous, inert and hazardous landfills (Landfill (England and Wales) Regulations, 2002) For APC residues, a key requirement in the Directive prior to landfill is to perform tests to determine its long term and short term leaching behaviour and to carry out treatment to reduce its toxicity (EA guidance on landfill, 2006). This project suggests that the need for treatment of APC residues augments the case for exploring potentials for recovery or reclassification of the residues. Article 6 c (iii) of the Directive reflects our aim to make APC residues at least stable non-reactive hazardous wastes (SNRHW) or completely non-hazardous through efficient treatment techniques such as vitrification, washing, stabilization and plasma technology. SNRHW are known to have low leaching potentials (EA guidance on landfill, 2006). Treated APC residues with leaching behaviour equivalent to those of non-hazardous waste can be disposed at designated non-hazardous landfill subject to meeting the relevant waste acceptance criteria (EA guidance on landfill, 2006 and Landfill (England and Wales) Regulation, 2002). APC residues must meet the waste acceptance criteria (WAC) for a designated landfill after treatment. Schedule 1 of the Landfill (England and Wales) (Amendment) Regulation 2004, stipulates the procedure and criteria for disposing or accepting waste at landfills. Waste Acceptance Criteria and Procedure The WAC is elaborately designed to deal with the technical requirement of wastes such as APC residues designated for landfills in the UK (England and Wales). It also aims at controlling the disposal of wastes into landfill which is a common practice in the UK. Technically, the WAC ensures that the numerical leaching characteristics of APC residue are determined prior to disposal at landfill (EA Guidance on Landfill 2006). Thus, after their mandatory treatment, APC residues must meet the relevant waste acceptance criteria before they are accepted into landfill. The leaching characteristics include: the elements and compounds in APC residue and their leaching properties (in mg/kg or L/S) and the hazardous nature of the APC residue (EA Guidance on Landfill, 2006). The Environment agency is responsible towards ensuring that the criteria for particular landfills are met. Preceding the WAC is the Waste acceptance procedure. The Waste acceptance procedure for APC requires basic characterization, compliance testing and on-site verification (EA Guidance on Landfill 2006). The basic characterization is done to determine the physical and chemical characteristics of the waste (EA Guidance on Landfill 2006). Incineration plants are responsible for carrying out the basic characterization of the APC residues since they produce the APC while the landfill operator ensures that compliance testing and on-site verification are done (EA Guidance 2006). Approved tests are defined in schedule1 part 2 of the landfill regulation 2004 and they include tests for determining treated APC composition and leaching behaviour. The compliance tests are carried out to verify if leaching limit levels predicted in the basic characterization are credible. Besides exploring opportunities for reuse of APC residues and recovery of valuable materials from the residues, this project also aims to treat APC residues to meet at least the waste acceptance criteria for SNRHW to enable disposal at a non-hazardous landfill. Amendment 14 of the Landfill (England and Wales) regulation 2004 states the criteria for disposing SNRHW in the non-hazardous landfill. Discussions There is no specific legislation on the reuse of wastes such as the APC residues in the UK. Notwithstanding, the UK without incineration network (www.ukwin.org.uk) tagged the use of fly ash and APC residues for construction works as irresponsible. Thus it can be suggested that re-use is implied in this clause as well. However, if it is well proven that APC residues can be managed sustainably without any long or short term environmental repercussions, it will pave way for debates to strengthen the existing regulatory frame and also re-focus the views of environmental activists toward the prospects in the residues. ESA report (2004) argues the provision of regulatory certainty by the government is necessary in enhancing investment towards sustainable management of APC residues. The report also suggests that investments will focus on reliable APC treatment technologies. There are several scientific developments for managing APC residues pioneered by waste management companies such as Techtronic in the UK. Environmental problems and management strategies Most of the APC residues (around 88%) (Environmental Agency, 2002) produced in the UK, are disposed of into landfills. During their disposal or any kind of utilization or handling, a number of environmental impacts can be caused. Dust and Gas emissions Dust emissions are represented as a potential risk, due to the size of the APC residues particles (0.001-1 mm) (Sabbas et al., 2003). Despite the easily dispersion of these fine particles, a survey by the Environmental Agency at a number of landfill sites in the UK testifies that their concentrations are within the recommended air quality objectives (Environmental Agency, 2002). Gas production is another potential environmental impact related to the disposal of APC residues. Gas is produced by metallic aluminum hydration (Sabbas et al., 2003) and because of that, some explosions have been reported (Sabbas et al., 2003). However, the production of gas is significantly lower compared to the production of the municipal solid waste landfills, due to their low biodegradable content of the APC residues. Leaching production The major environmental impact is the leaching production of APC residues The leaching behaviour of the elements present in APC residues is the main source of environmental concern. Leachates can cause pollution of soil, groundwater and surface water bodies. The leaching behavior of the APC residues is very complex and depends on a lot of parameters. The pH and the liquid to solid (L/S) ratio of the residues that will occur in the landfill site are important factors which affect determine their leaching behaviorbehaviour as well as the availability of the elements which are contained in the APC residues. The pH depends on the characteristics of the leaching fluid and the waste, i.e. APC residues, and is the key factor of many elements leachability. Leaching of most major elements (e.g. Al, Ca, S, Mg) and heavy metals (e.g. Cd, Pb, Zn) are strongly pH-dependent (Astrup et al., 2006). This dependency of the pH causes a significant difficulty on the prediction of the leaching behaviorbehaviour. Generally, APC residues carry on their pH in alkaline values for a long time (many thousands of years) (Astrup et al., 2006). However, their pH decreases as the time passes and the APC residues are washed by the infiltrating water (the neutralize capacity decreases) (Astrup et al., 2006). Thus, the prediction of the landfills pH and thereby the leaching behaviorbehaviour of the residues in over a long term period is complex. The L/S ratio represents the amount of the leachate that comes in contact with a given amount of APC residues (Sabbas et al. 2003 pp what page?) and depends on the characteristics of the APC residues and the climatic conditions, the hydrology and the hydrogeology of the area (Sabbas et al. 2003). Usually, as the time of disposal passes the value of the L/S ratio becomes higher for a particular application site. Due to this contact the properties of the waste as well as the leaching behaviorbehaviour of the waste change. Thus, the value of this ratio is a very important parameter for the leachate content. The availability for leaching is a parameter, which characterizes the particular waste and represents a fraction of the total content of contaminants in the waste itself (Sabbas et al. 2003). The typical values of the availability for the APC residues are shown in table 2 and they can provide a theoretical estimation of the maximum release of a contaminant in a period of 1000 to 10000 years (Sabbas et al. 2003). The prediction of the leaching behaviour and the evaluation of the environmental impact of APC residues are based on leaching tests. Leaching values for the APC residues arising from leaching test are summarized in table 4. The first leachate from APC residues is usually characterized from soluble salts (e.g. chlorides, hydroxides of calcium, sodium and potassium) and trace element such as Pb and Mo (Sabbas et al., 2003). Contrary to the high solubility of this elements, the solubility of toxic organic compounds is believed to be not high due to their hydrophobic nature and their low concentration in APC residues (from properly operated MSWI plants) (Sabbas et al., 2003). Long term leachate concentrations are usually lower than the initial or they may remain atto the same level. The only exceptions are the elements Al and Zn, which concentrations in the leachate are increase d inover a long term period (Astrup et al., 2006). As it is explained above the leaching behaviour of the APC residues depends on the environmental conditions and changes during the time of the disposal. Thus, an analytical prediction of the long term leaching behaviour is very difficult and it should be based on a combination of information on leaching principles, leaching tests, field measurements, simulation of mineral changes and speciation (Sabbas et al., 2003 page number pls). Due to the complexity of the long term leaching behaviour, the data available in literature are limited. Management of APC residues In the UK the disposal of any waste to landfill is regulated (see regulations section). Generally, the landfills are classified as suitable for hazardous, non-hazardous or inter wastes and, for each of these types of landfill, particular leaching limit values (Waste acceptance criteria, WAC) are defined and should be achieved for any waste are to be landfilled. Table 5 shows the leaching limit values (WAC) for the three types of landfill sites and if they are compared with the values in table 4, it becomes obvious that APC residues cannot be landfilled without a prior treatment. And non-hazardous waste deposited in the same cell. Either TOC or LOI must be used for hazardous wastes. UK PAH limit values are under development. Following the recent consultation exercise the UK Govt may review the limit values in tow years time (2006). If an inert waste does not meet the SO4 at L/S 10 limit, alternative limit values of 1500 mg/l SO4 at C2 (initial eluate from the percolation test) prEN 14,405 and 6000 mg/kg SO4 at L/S10 (either from percolation test or bach test BS EN 12457-3), can be used to demonstrate compliance with the acceptance criteria for inert wastes. The values for TDS can be used instead of the values for Cl and SO4. Or DOC at pH 7.5-8.0 and L/S 10 can be determined on pr EN 14429 (pH dependent test) eluates. Disposal to landfill (Amutha Rani et al., 2008) APC residues are mixed with wastewater to form a solidified product. During this treatment the residues react with the CO2 from the atmosphere reducing the pH to values between 8 and 9. This mixing also eliminates the dispersion of the APC residues particles. After this treatment, the APC residues reach the WAC and they are landfilled into monofill cells at a hazardous waste landfill. This process is used by a treatment plant in GloucesstershireGloucestershire, from which most of the APC residues treated by this method in the UK are coming. Storage in salt mines In this disposal method the APC residues are loaded in sealed capsules and pitted 170m below the surface (Amutha Rani et al., 2008). The disposal in salt mines can take place for a long term. They are characterized as well isolated, very dry, with stable atmosphere and natural gas-impermeable salt layers (Clement, 2000). Salt mine for this purpose is located in Cheshire, England, where a major percentage of the APC residues, produced in the UK, are stored (Amutha Rani et al., 2008). Use in waste acid treatment (Amutha Rani et al., 2008) Due to the mixing of waste acid (usually HCl) and APC residues, the lime content of the APC residues is convertedsed into less hazardous components (CaCl2) and the concentrations of Zn and Pb are reduced. Furthermore, the pH is at high levels, preventing the salts release. Thus, the final mixture from this process is non-hazardous and it is described as sludge from a physico/chemical treatment; it is classified as EWC code 190206 and can be disposed of in non-hazardous landfills. TREATMENT TECHNIQUES Ash Washing Process Description: The objective of Ash washing process is to extract a number of minerals from the APC residue obtained after Municipal Solid Waste incineration and thereby diminish the leachability of various compounds remaining in the residue. The process also aims to improve the quality of the residue obtained for further re-use applications or to reduce the overall content of waste going to the landfill. According to Quina et al (2001), ash washing, acid leaching, electro-chemical process and thermal treatment are some of the most widely used methods for extracting metal values from the APC residues. The separation techniques studied in this section are ash washing with MgSO4, bioleaching using Asphergillus niger fungi and leaching using extracting agents. Each process has different prerequisites, operation time and cost, objectives and risks associated with them. Ash Washing With MgSO4: Chimenos et al (2005) The process aims to apply the optimum parameters for washing APC residue by utilising minimum energy and water. This process uses multi-stage washing process to diminish the leaching of chloride and sulphate salts present in APC residue and thereby ensuring that the amount of harmful substance present in wastewater is reduced. The wastewater produced is recycled and re-used in the process using employing a rapid spray evaporation technique which runs on the waste heat produced from pumps, turbines and incineration furnace. Figure 3a showsrepresent the overall process diagram of operation. The research conducted by Zhang et al (2008) shows that the leachability of the heavy metals and chlorides present in APC residue depends on its pH level. The pH of the solution, when MgSO4 is added during the washing process, may be controlled by the formation of gypsum as shown in Eq(1). Ca(OH)2 + MgSO4 CaSO4 + Mg(OH)2..(1) Bioleaching Q.Wang et al (2009) This process is considered to be a biohydrometallurgical approach to extract heavy metals from APC residue. It is considered to be a green technology because of it makes use of the natural ability of microorganisms to break down solid compounds into soluble and extractable form by enzymatic oxidation or reduction. The process uses the acids secreted by Aspergillus niger fungi such as oxalic acid, citric acid and gluconic acids to extract the heavy metals present. Water-washing was is used as a pre-treatment before the bioleaching process to reduce the bio-leaching period from 30 to 20 days and to extract the maximum amount of chloride and sulphate salts. Figure 4 shows an overall process diagram for the bioleaching process. Bioleaching is a low cost and low energy consumption approach. Leaching Using Extracting Agents Fedje et al (2010) This process uses leaching agents other than water for extracting heavy metals like Zn and Pb. The efficiency of the extraction agent depends on heavy metals of interest, the concentration of the extracting solution, the pH and the liquid/Solid ratio used. The goal of the process is obtain a solution in which the concentrations are high enough to enable further separation or recovery. The leaching media used for this process are 3M HNO3 L/S = 5 0.1 M EDTA with pH adjustment L/S = 5 3M NH4NO3 L/S = 5 The choice of these leaching media was based on their ability to form a complex with metal ions. Table 6 compares the efficiency of the aforementioned leaching agent in extracting the heavy metals from APC residue. Figure 5 represents the overall process diagram. The most widespread leaching method used for APC residues is acidic leaching using strong mineral acids such as HCl and H2SO4. However, due to the high alkalinity of APC residues, large amounts of acids are needed which results in trouble with storage and handling. Moreover, the reaction of APC resid