From Hacking to Cyber Terrorism Essay -- Computers Software Hackers Es

From Hacking to Cyber Terrorism Introduction Information technology (IT) is evolving everyday and our day-to-day life is becoming more and more dependent on it. In this twenty first century, we cannot imagine ourselves without emails, online banking systems and health care systems and without World Wide Web. In other words, evolution of IT has given a modern, technologically advanced and convenient life to the society. But, over the time we are also observing explosive growth in the darker side of the IT - regarding hacking and cyber crimes. Activities like unauthorized computer intrusion, denial of service (DOS), stealing computer passwords and secure data; causing damage to computer systems and databases and causing damage to individuals/society are not very rare these days. As we go further on this paper, we will see different aspects of hacking, from harmless (simply looking around thru web) to dangerously harmful (cyber-terrorism). Irrespective of harmless or harmful, we need to understand is it ethical and how does it impact the global world. This paper is intended to discuss the ethical issues and moral values involved with this darker side of information technology. This paper also includes discussion on the good side of hacking and how hacking can lead to serious cyber crimes and causes harm to world community. What is a computer hacker? The definition of the computer hacker can be described as follows, 1. In programming, a computing enthusiast. The term is normally applied to people who take a delight in experimenting with system hardware (the electronics), software (computer programs) and communication systems (telephone lines, computer networks etc). 1 2. In data (information... ...Security† - Dorothy Denning and Frank Drake, From Chapter 2, Computers, Ethics and Social values by Johnson and Nissenbaum. 5. â€Å"Computer Security and computer crimes† From Chapter 7, Case Studies in Information and computer ethics by Richard Spinello 6. Hacker Crackdown - By Bruce Sterling http://www.lysator.liu.se/etexts/hacker/ 7. Computer Hacking and Ethics by Brian Harvey http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~bh/hackers.html 8. Hacking: Ethical Issues of the Internet Revolution http://blacksun.box.sk/tutorials.php/id/155 9. Cyber-terrorism http://www-cs.etsu-tn.edu/gotterbarn/stdntppr/ 10. â€Å"Frameworks of ethical analysis â€Å" From Chapter 2, Case Studies in information and computer ethics by Richard Spinello 11. Soren Kierkegaard http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kierkegaard 12. Are hackers terrorists? http://zdnet.com.com/2102-11-528326.html

Essay --

Presentacià ³n En este Tema 2 se parte de la base de los conocimientos adquiridos en el Tema 1 (â€Å"El concepto de estrategia†), y se orienta la atencià ³n al à ¡rea de la estrategia de la empresa y la estrategia de marca. Descubriremos que la estrategia no es un elemento aislado que surge de forma espontà ¡nea, sino que es una pieza esencial de la operacià ³n de una empresa que nace de unos principios fundamentales bà ¡sicos, que se relaciona de manera interdependiente con otras facetas de la empresa y/o marca, y que es el resultado de mucho trabajo. Desarrollaremos un recorrido desde estos cimientos fundamentales de la empresa que comenzarà ¡ en su filosofà ­a, misià ³n, y visià ³n, y pasarà ¡ por los conceptos de posicionamiento (y los componentes de diferenciacià ³n, ventaja competitiva, y propuesta de valor), esencia de marca, y la idea singular. Tomaremos como referencia algunos ejemplos del mundo de la publicidad que podrà ¡n servir como ejemplos de cà ³mo se puede plasmar una estrategia de compaà ±Ãƒ ­a y/o de marca en una pieza de comunicacià ³n publicitaria. Finalmente, a lo largo del tema se detallarà ¡n algunos modelos de plantillas de posicionamiento que servirà ¡n como base para poder desarrollar la actividad colaborativa que se presentarà ¡ a finales de esta Unidad de Aprendizaje. â€Æ' Pantalla 1 (Estrategia en la empresa) Si bien la Real Academia Espaà ±ola define la palabra â€Å"estrategia† en su tercera acepcià ³n como â€Å"En un proceso regulable, conjunto de las reglas que aseguran una decisià ³n à ³ptima en cada momento†, no està ¡ de mà ¡s buscar en otras fuentes para conocer alguna definicià ³n adicional que pueda resultar à ºtil para entender su importancia en el desarrollo de las actividades empresariales. Asà ­ pues, en la versià ³n online del diccionario inglà ©s Oxford se enc... ...inal (obligatorio) La declaracià ³n de posicionamiento detalla cuà ¡l es el lugar que intentaremos ocupar en la mente de nuestro pà ºblico objetivo, por quà © nos ha de creer, y cuà ¡les son los motivos para que nos crea. â€Æ' Resumen La estrategia no es algo que surge de la nada, sino que es un elemento crucial de las empresas y sus marcas. Se tienen que establecer y conocer los fundamentos de la marca: su filosofà ­a, misià ³n, y visià ³n. Definidos estos tres elementos bà ¡sicos, y conociendo a fondo la propia compaà ±Ãƒ ­a, lo que ofrece, y todos los elementos que componen su entorno, se establece un posicionamiento para sus marcas y productos. Existen procesos pautados y modelos que nos ayudan a llevar a cabo este ejercicio de posicionamiento, que actà ºa en sintonà ­a con la esencia de marca para crear una Idea Singular de lo que representamos para nuestro consumidor objetivo. â€Æ' â€Æ'

Eating Disorders And Substance Abuse Essay -- Weight Loss Health Essay

Eating Disorders And Substance Abuse Common Eating Disorders: The two most common eating disorders are bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa. Both disorders, primarily affect young women, therefore the majority of the research on eating disorders has been done with women subjects. The onset of bulimia is between adolescence and early adulthood while the onset of anorexia is between early and late adolescence. Not only is the onset different but the disorders are unique. Bulimia nervosa is characterized by loss of control over eating which leads to food binges. These episodes are interspersed with episodes of purging, such as vomiting or laxative abuse, to keep weight down. The goal of anorexia is also to keep weight down , but to a more severe extent. Anorexia nervosa is marked by "a relentless pursuit of thinness, intense fears of becoming fat, and a distorted body image" (Lilenfeld 1996). There is a substantial weight loss and amenorrhea. These changes occur by either restriction of food intake which is labeled restrictive anorexia, or starvat ion with bouts of purging which is labeled binge eating/purging anorexia. Studies of Eating Disordered Individuals And Substance Abuse: The causes and issues underlying eating disorders still remain, for the most part, a mystery. For this reason much investigation has gone into any issues which may be related to eating disorders. The topic which will be analyzed in this paper is the comorbidity of eating disorders and drug/alcohol abuse. In a review of fifty-one studies by Lilenfeld and Kaye, rates of alcohol/drug abuse were found to differ significantly among restricting anorexics, binge eating/purging anorexics and bulimics. "Depending on the study analyzed, the rates of... ...of dual diagnosis. Therefore different and varied treatment programs are used in hopes of improving this problem. In essence, treatment of dual diagnosis is still a guessing game. Works Cited: Lilenfeld, L. & Kaye, W. (1996). The Link Between Alcoholism and Eating Disorders. Alcohol Health and Research World, 20, 94- . Schuckit, M. , Tipp, J. , Anthenelli, R. & Bucholz. K. (1996). Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa in Alcohol Dependent Men and Women and their Relatives. The American Journal of Psychiatrity, 153, 75- . Strober, M. , Freeman, R. ,Bower, S. ,& Rigali, J. (1996). Binge Eating in Anorexia Nervosa Predicts Later Onset of Substance Use Disorder. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25, 519- . Varner, l. (1995). Dual diagnosis: Patients with Eating and Subatance Related Disorders. Journal of the American Dietic Association, 95, 224- .

Accounts Receivable and Blades

1. Assuming that banks in Thailand issue a time draft on behalf of Sports Equipment Inc. and Major Leagues Inc. , would Blades receive payment for its roller blades before it delivers them? Do the banks issuing the time drafts guarantee payment on behalf of the Thai retailers if they default on the payment? ANSWER: No, Blades would not receive payment before it delivers roller blades to Sports Equipment Inc. and Major Leagues Inc. if banks in Thailand issue a time draft on the retailers’ behalf. The usual time of payment under a time draft is the maturity of the draft, and Blades relies on the retailers to pay the drafts at maturity.No, the banks issuing the time drafts do not guarantee payment on behalf of the Thai retailers if they default on the payment. The draft merely represents Blades’ formal demand for payment from the buyer and affords Blades’ less protection than a letter of credit, since the banks are not obligated to honor payments on the buyerâ€℠¢s behalf. 2. What payment method should Blades suggest to Sports Gear Inc.? Substantiate your answer. ANSWER: Blades should suggest to Sports Gear Inc. that its bank issue a letter of credit on its behalf.In a letter of credit, the bank is substituting its credit for that of the buyers, and Blades would be assured of receiving payment from the issuing bank as long as it presents the necessary documents in accordance with the L/C. The issuing bank is then obligated to honor drawings under the L/C. On the other hand, Sports Gear Inc. does not have to pay for the goods until shipment has been made and documents are presented in good order. 3. What organization could Blades contact in order to insure its sales to the Thai retailers? What type of insurance do these organizations provide?ANSWER: Blades could contact the Export-Import Bank of the U. S. (Ex im bank), which provides insurance protection against the risk of nonpayment by foreign buyers. Under such insurance coverage, Ex im b ank will reimburse Blades between 90 and 100 percent of the insured amount, depending on the type of policy and buyers. 4. How could Blades use accounts receivable financing or factoring, considering that it does not currently have accounts receivable in Thailand? If Blades uses a Thai bank to obtain this financing, how do you think the fact that Blades does not have receivables in Thailand would affect the terms of the financing?ANSWER: Blades could use accounts receivable financing and factoring using its accounts receivable in the U. S. Using accounts receivable financing, Blades could obtain a loan from a bank that would be secured by an assignment of the accounts receivables. Using factoring, Blades could sell the U. S. accounts receivable to a factor. Either approach is probably available to Blades if it decides to use a U. S. bank. However, it could also attempt to conduct accounts receivable financing of factoring of its U. S. receivables using a bank in Thailand.Thai banks may consider the assignment of foreign receivables less attractive than the assignment of domestic receivables and may require high interest rates (accounts receivable financing) or discount the receivables heavily (factoring). 5. Assuming that Blades is unable to locate a Thai bank that is willing to issue an L/C on Blades behalf, can you think of a way Blades could utilize its bank in the U. S. to effectively obtain an L/C from a Thai bank? ANSWER: Blades could inquire whether its U. S. bank has a correspondent bank in Thailand. In that case, the Thai bank may be willing to accept a letter of credit issued by Blades’ U.S. bank on Blades’ behalf. 6. What organizations could Blades contact to obtain working capital financing? If Blades is unable to obtain working capital financing from these organizations, what are its other options to finance its working capital needs in Thailand? ANSWER: There are several organizations Blades could contact to obtain working capital f inancing. For example, the Ex im bank’s Working Capital Guarantee Program encourages commercial banks to extend short-term financing by providing a comprehensive guarantee that covers 100 percent of the loan’s rincipal and interest. Furthermore, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) will provide medium- to long-term financing to U. S. investors undertaking an overseas venture. If Blades is unable to obtain working capital financing from these organizations, it could ask its bank for a short-term loan that finances the working capital cycle that begins with the purchase of inventory and continues with the sale of the goods, creation of an account receivable, and conversion to cash.

A Natural Consequence

As a natural consequence, millions of people in Iraq had no difficulty believing that it would be possible to get rid of Saddam if the US, which had been bombing Iraq at that time, was in their own ranks.Although these riots–the period that was relatively unexpected–faced by the Iraqi Republican Guard's agile and violent interventions. Saddam's forces have found life in a very disturbing range, from burning gas from helicopters to burning people to bombing hospitals where they were wounded. However, the support that the United States implied at various levels did not come at all. In particular, Turkey's fear of a fragmented Iraq, and the diplomatic pressure on this issue, is to step back to support the riots that could result in the US government declaring the independence of the Kurds, and Saddam's In response to the riots, it was enough to let tens of thousands of people die.The riots that began against a dictator in the region with this back step of the United States suddenly transformed into the biggest migration of the last 50 years. Only in March and April, nearly two million Kurds began to flee to Iraq's northern border neighbors, Turkey and Iran, among the ruins of the war, which were suddenly part of their lives.The US, the UN, Turkey, and Iran's inexperience in keeping the situation under control has worsen the suffering of the people trapped in the interests of the state. During the migration, thousands of people, mostly children, died from the weather conditions, hunger, thirst and health problems, as well as the shooting of helicopters at civilian populations from time to time. According to estimates made by the United Nations data, an average of 2,000 Kurds per day was killed in a section of 1991. After the Gulf War in 1991, around 470 thousand people fled to Turkey.The most dramatic examples in our recent history were in Bosnia and in our border neighbor Syria. In Syria, it is still ongoing in the form of domestic and foreign immigration. The Bosnian War is the most violent war in Europe since the second World War, in which a series of ethnic conflicts took place between March 1992 and November 1995, and many war crimes, especially ethnic cleansing, were committed. According to the official sources during and after the war, only Turkey, 20.000 people had to emigrate. In addition, more than 1.5 million Bosnian-Muslim people had to leave their lands. About 20,000 to 30,000 women were raped. This war has passed on the history of the world as the bloodiest and systematic genocide. On the other hand, in Syria, approximately 400,000 people lost their lives in the civil war, which began with a small protest on March 11, 2011 and became one of the biggest catastrophes in the Middle East. While 3 million people were wounded in the civil war, 1 million people were disabled. Due to the Syrian civil war, millions of people fell to refugee status and the historic structures were destroyed as if they could not be repaired.With the process called Arab Spring, the overthrow of the 30-year Husnu Mubarak rule had deeply affected the peoples of the region, not just Egypt. This historic revolution dominated Bahrain, Libya, Morocco and even Gaddafi's death.During this period, when the people's movements led to great revolutions, two female doctors expressed their happiness about the situation while they were talking on the phone. These two women, who were listened to by the intelligence of the phones, were arrested, and their hair was shaved as punishment. On top of that, the 12-13 children, a relative of one of these women, wrote the slogan â€Å"The people want the order to be demolished.† The principal of the school is complaining about these kids in intelligence. They run the children in and expose them to severe torture.

Chomsky Transformational-Generative Linguistics and Halliday Systemic Functional Linguistics Essay

Prior to unfold the compassion, personally, I am continuing to appreciate that generative and systemic functional grammars persist as â€Å"non-overlapping magisteria.† Since they are not dichotomous or contrary, it should be accepted that it’s helpful to simply define one in terms of what the other is not, if we want to safely conclude one is advantageous than the other, there must be a criteria or purpose relating to it. Nevertheless, the primary function of language is communication, if for this purpose, we must doubt that which theory is more applicable when users actually produce or understand language. It is widely believed that, in the kind of society we live in, context is an important element we have to take into consideration in language study for the moment we understand the human language. And thus we admit that systemic functional grammar is more developed from TG grammar and has more advantages in terms of helping us use language, understand meanings and analyze discourses. In my observation, there are at least six differences between systemic functional grammar and TG grammar as follows. 1. TG grammar is the linguistic version that has been mostly influenced by and developed upon language form, whereas systemic functional grammar is the study of language through meaning, i.e. its function. Chomsky insisted that linguistics should go beyond merely describing syntactic structures, and aim to explain why language is structured in the way it is – which includes explaining why other kinds of structures are not found. TG grammar solves the long unsolved question of traditional grammar: the transformation process from active tense sentence to passive one. He thought that syntax is the center of linguistic study which consists of surface structure and deep structure. Chomsky also put forward two important concepts: competence and performance in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. The former refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the systems of rules, and the latter the actual use of language in concrete situations. For TG grammar, linguist’s task is primarily to describe competence because performance is impossible without competence. But, to Halliday, it’s more significant to describe actual sentences with many functions not the idealized deep structure. He was concerned with the function of the sentence, what the writer’s purpose is in writing the sentence – in other words, with the meaning. Language serves three major functions as the metafunction: the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual functions. However, any full analysis of the sentence will inevitably need to take account of both the meaning and the form. To summarize, Chomsky characterized form independently of meaning and function, while Halliday had good reasons to believe that meaning and function can help shape form. Both these approaches in linguistics have their advantages and disadvantages and they can interact with each other complementarily. In fact, both of them represent the two directions of linguistic studies at present: the vertical study of language in relation to thought and logic and the horizontal study of language with the social cultural framework. With both of them combined, we will have a full and complete view of language. 2. TG grammar is an abstract set of generalized rules, while systemic functional grammar concentrates on context-dependent usage. In the second half of the last century, there built up an immensely influential view of what the study of language should involve that insists that there is only one proper place to start – from a view of language as an abstract set of generalized rules detached from any particular context of use. This view, as we know today, is the TG grammar. TG grammars merely study the sentences that obey the rules of grammar. The meaning of sentence is manifested by its deep structure and the form of sentence by its surface structure. TG studies the relationship between the deep structure and the surface structure, the generation of grammatically correct sentences and transformational rules. Halliday held a different opinion that he suggested the primary function of language is communicating meanings in particular contexts. Linguists should study the language actually in use, not in imaginary so-called language ideal structure. Moreover, language in use includes both the spoken language and written language; both the regular rules of grammar and the irregular rules that can be understood and accepted. He considered language is a social semiotic which consists of field, tenor and mode. Language as social semiotic must be studied in social context. Functionalists choose meaning as objective of linguistic studies, which is closely linked to the world, so they focus on the relation between language and the world, thought and culture. 3, TG grammar takes linguistics towards biology, while systemic functional grammar takes it towards sociology. Simply to illustrate this point of view, TG grammar believes that language is innate: SF grammar believes that it is learned. TG grammar believes that all human beings possess a grammatical program hardwired into the brain: SF grammar does not – he believes that grammar mirrors function is mastered through experience. TG grammar believes in ‘Universal Grammar’: SF grammar does not. TG grammar believes that language exists separately from experience: SF grammar believes that language only develops through experience of other people and the world around us. TG grammar is biology oriented: SF grammar is towards sociology. More specifically, TG grammar believes that we are born with the required mental capacities. Thus a rigorously formal approach to the description of language leads us towards neurology and genetics. According to Chomsky, language is the preliminary state of language faculty existing in human mind and brain and a mental organ. It is a natural and innate object just like human heart or lung. Structuralists think children learn language through â€Å"stimulus and response†. Different from Chomsky’s views about the nature of language, Halliday considered language should be taken sociology and must be studied in social context. The systemic functional linguistics is a study of relevant features in the culture and society that form the context in which language is used, and which are at the same time constructed by the way in which language is used. To sum up, both approaches, through form and meaning, ask essentially the same question about language: how can we explain why language has the main features that it does. But, whereas the form-based approach finds the answer in the way our brains are structured, the meaning-based approach finds it in the way our social context is structured. Fourthly, TG grammar is a kind of transformational generative grammar, while systemic functional grammar is based on a kind of reflexivity – â€Å"construe†. By a generative grammar, Chomsky simply means â€Å"a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences†. He believed that â€Å"every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language.† â€Å"Thus a generative grammar attempts to specify what the speaker actually knows, not what he may report about his knowledge†. Chomsky inclined that it is necessary to work out a grammar that, with a finite set of rules, can generate all the grammatical sentences in a language without generating a single non-grammatical sentence. One important implication of the functional view of language is that context and language are interdependent. On one hand, language could be seen as dependent on context, for example, when the speaker is in an informal context, he is likely to use informal language. On the other hand, the use of informal language also contributes to creating the informal context. We use the term ‘construe’ to talk about this kind of reflexivity. Halliday paid more attention on the wordings than meanings for the reason that it is wordings that we can use to express the meanings. Fifthly, in systemic functional grammar, there is a special term ‘choice’, while TG grammar has no choice because it is viewed as a set of rules detached from language use. From the point of view of systemic functional grammar, if we want to examine what a piece of language is intended to (i.e. its function), we cannot avoid thinking in terms of choice. Systemic functional grammar sets out to investigate what the range of relevant choices are, both in the kinds of meanings and in the kinds of wordings; and to match these two sets of choices. The language choice system provides a number of choices of wording and structure. The object of language choice is regarded as grammatical rules in functional linguistics. While studying the choices that are applied to meaning or function, Halliday established the systemic functional grammar, consisting of the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual functions. The last but not the least, TG grammar sets out to study language completely isolated from language use, focusing on propositional meaning, while systemic functional grammar applies to language use, emphasizing functional meaning. TG grammar is almost exclusively interested in what we can call ‘propositional meaning’, that is, the ‘content’ of the sentence. If two sentences have exactly the propositional content and have no difference in surface form, they can be regarded as the same. Chomsky made a decision to study language isolated from the context so that the aim is to discover the rules which govern how constituents can be put together to form grammatically correct sentences, and to arrange these rules in a general way; therefore each sentence is analyzed in complete isolation, both from other sentences and from the situation in which it might be used. To summarize, transformational-generative linguistics and systemic functional linguistics are two influential but quite contrasting approaches to linguistic study and reflect the two trends in linguistics development, providing an innovative value and important significance. TG grammar belongs to formalism which considers language and languages independently of other activities of communication, while systemic functional grammar inherits from functionalism which emphasizes that language are manifested in complex human activities closely linked with social interaction. They both play an important role in language teaching and learning.

Passing of Risk

In all legal system the passing of risk in sold goods is a big problem and an important event in the sale of goods. Once the buyer acquires risk, he become liable for the price even if the goods are lost or damaged. The financial risk of and responsibility for damage or destruction when property is being transferred between a buyer and a seller. The risk includes Peril, danger, the chance of loss or injury. Liability for injury, loss, or damage, by statute placed upon the manufacturer rather than the consumer, should it happen from normal use of a product. The Uniform Commercial Code uses a contractual approach in allocating the risk of loss and assumes that the risk is upon the seller until some event occurs that shifts the risk to the buyer. Where the goods are identified and the contract authorizes the seller to ship the goods by carrier, the event necessary to shift the risk of loss is dependent upon whether the contract is a â€Å"shipment† or â€Å"destination† contract. Where the contract does not require the transfer of the goods by carrier, risk of loss passes to the buyer upon the taking of physical possession if the seller is a merchant, otherwise risk passes on tender of delivery, unless an agreement to the contrary is made. The phrase is also an insurance term denoting the hazards and perils that an insured is protected against, i. e. , the contingencies or unknown events that are contemplated by the insured and that are covered by the insurance policy. Under English law that is the sale of goods, act 1979 the general rule is that risk passes along with property though there are exceptions to this. The U. N. Sale of Goods Convention, 1980, is silent on the role of the parties' intention in the passing of risk; nevertheless, the same rule emerges from the whole tenor of the Convention. The civil law applies the rule that the risk falls on the owner of the goods. The U. C. C. provides that risk of loss passes to the buyer when the goods are delivered to the carrier: sect. 2-509(1)(a). In the case of CIF or FOB (vessel) contract, the seller need only put the goods into the custody of the carrier and at that point the risk of loss during carriage passes to the buyer. The Vienna convention also contains provisions relating to passing of risk. The consequence of the passing of risk from seller to buyer are passing of risk from seller to buyer are no different from those found in English domestic law. Article 66 of Vienna convention is substantively similar as Article 96 of ULIS. The UNCITRAL adopted to provide a uniform law for the international sale of goods. It focuses on the function of the contract between parties. And also addresses the issue of who bears the risk of loss on a simple point-to-point sale. The multiple sales creates problem in transfer goods. A solution is needed for the problem. In the context of risk, the principal aspect of the problem of risk is whether the buyer is bound to pay the price although the goods are lost or damaged. In German jurisprudence this aspect of the risk problem is called preisgefahr. In Art 96 of ULIS where the risk has passed to the buyer, he shall pay the price notwithstanding the loss or deterioration of the goods. The provisions on the passing of the risk in INCOTERMS are said to be founded on the same concept, but do not contain an express reference to the price. The UCC and Comecon conditions refrain from defining the risk as denoting price risk. The true character of the concept of risk is not treated as the meaning price risk. In another cases the reference to risk cannot denote the price risk because the defaulter, if he is the buyer, will rarely have to pay the price; the normal remedies against him are of compensatory character such as damages, compensation or a penalty. It’s something really confusing. The trade terms developed by international usage, such as the Comecon conditions, the ECE conditions, and the UCC, treat the concept of the risk in that general manner. In the ULIS, already observed in Art96 refers to the price risk. This obeisance to antiquated doctrine does not, howevre, imply a real, substantial difference between ULIS and the other international formulations, it only reveals an inelegantia juris in the draftsmanship of ULIS. A number of developing countries objected strenuously to the retroactive passing of risk provisions, and proposed that the risk pass at the conclusion of the contract. CONCLUSION However, the exact moment of the passing of risk under a contract of sale is of prime importance to the parties to a contract of carriage, because, in most cases, it determines who will suffer the consequences should loss or damage ensue. There are some exceptions also for this rule. When the seller fails to deliver the goods within the delay specified, they become at the seller's risk once the buyer gives notice to the seller of the latter's default. Another point is that the parties themselves can agree to detach the passing of risk from the passing of title.